A&P Lab 3 Practical
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- What are 5 commonly used blood tests today?
-
1) hematocrit
2) hemoglobin
3) blood urea nitrogen
4) total white blood cell count
5) white blood cell differentiation - What does hematocrit measure?
- -the percentage of red blood cells in a blood sample (35-45% is normal)
- What does hemoglobin measure?
- -hemoglobin concentration of whole blood
- What does blood urea nitrogen measure?
- -the urea nitrogen content of whole blood as an idicator of kidney and/or liver function
- What is the purpose of WBC count?
- -total number of white blood cells in a blood sample
- What is the purpose of a WBC differential?
- -to evaluate a stained blood smear
- What is the formula for calculating the hematocrit in a capillary tube?
- RBC length/fluid length x 100
- How do you calculate the true hematocrit?
- hematocrit x 0.96
- What is the purpose of calculating the true hematocrit?
- -it is not possible to fully compact the RBC present in the plasma becuase approcimately 3-8% of plasma is entrapped between the red blood cells.
- How did we do the hematocrit test?
-
-fill cap tube 3/4, clay pack
-centrifuge 4 minutes
-measure total fluid length
-use formula - What did we do for the hemoglobin test?
- -Tallquist method (1 drop whole blood on small test paper, wait 15s, match color in gms)
-
What is a decrease in Hb called?
Increase? -
-anemia
-hemochromotosis -
What is Hb measured in?
How does this compare to PCV? -
-g/dL
-1/3 of PCV - What is urea nitrogen?
- -waste product of protein metabolism
- Where is urea formed?
- In the liver, carried by blood to the kidneys for excretion
- What can cause BUN alterations?
-
-renal function
-protein breakdown
-hydration status
-liver failure
-excessive GI bleeding - In terms of kidney function, what does BUN do?
- When damaged or diseased kidneys can't clear urea from the bloodstream, BUN increases. Hypovolemic shock or congestive heart failure result from decreased renal perfusion
- What test was used to perform a BUN?
- Azostix reagent strips: large drop of blood on stick, wait 60s, rinse for 1-2 sec, compare color immediately
- What was used to perform a WBC count?
- -hemacytometer
- What causes the lysing of red blood cells in the hemacytometer?
- -acetic acid
- What is the equation for calculating WBC?
- -(ave per square) x (100) x (10,000) = WBC/mL
-
What does the 100 account for in the WBC calculation?
How about the 1000? -
-dilution factor
-volume of counting chamber - What are the proper sequences of staining?
-
-dip and blot 5 times in fixative, then eosin, then hematoxylin
-lastly, blot back of slide with PT to remove excess stain - Describe red tops.
-
*NO anticoagulant
-used to harvest serum after sample clots - Describe tiger tops.
-
*contains gel barrier
-serum seperator, no need to draw off serum after - Describe lavender (purple) tops.
- Contains EDTA to bind up calcium. This prevents coagulation and used for CBC and cytology of body fluids (preserves cells well).
- Describe green tops.
-
*contains heparin which interferes with thrombin formation
-available as sodium, potassium, or lithuim salt.
-not permanent, so clot may form
-can be spun immediately - Describe blue tops.
-
*contains sodium citrate which ties up calcium
-usually used for coagulation testing - Describe gray tops.
-
*contains potassium oxalate which ties up calcium
-useful in measuring glucose and lactate if blood sample can't be spun down and separated quickly - What are the main components of blood?
-
-cells (formed elements) 45%
-plasma (92% water, 8% solids) 55% - Describe RBC's.
-
-erythrocytes
-formed in blood marrow
-no nucleus (starts with one) - Which animals have weird RBC's?
-
-goats: have 4 nuclei
-amphibians/birds: have nucleus and oval in shape - What is rouleau?
- -factor found in horse blood (unique!) allowing stacking of blood into chains for more compression.
- What is hemolysis?
- -lysis of RBS due to toxins, parasites
- What is anemia?
- -reduction of RBC numbers or Hb resulting in less oxygen transport
- What are three things that cause anemia?
-
1) reduction in formation (lack of iron, nutrition
2) blood loss: parasites, lacerations
3) increased RBC destruction: malaria, immune disorder - What is hypoxia?
-
-decreased oxygen in tissues
*more oxygen: brighter it is! - What is hemoglobin for?
- -transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide
- What are thrombocytes?
-
-platelets
-1/2 size of RBC's
-involved in blood clots - What are leukocytes?
-
WBC's
-diapedesis
-can be granulocytes or agranulocytes - What is diapedesis?
- -independent movement
- -What are neutrophils?
-
-many multishaped nuclei, often u-shaped
-cytoplasm doesn't stain well
-phagocytic
*largest in number and most common
*aka: polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN)
-neutrophilia vs neutropenia - What are eosinophils?
-
-acidophils
-take up red stain
-scarce except in chronic disease and allergies
-acidopenia vs acidophilia - What are basophils?
-
-take up blue dye
-scarce except in acute allergic reactions/inflammations
-basphilia vs basopenia - What are monocytes?
-
-moving WBC's
-largest WBC
-phagocytic
-called macrophages with stationary
-called Kupffer cells when stationary in liver - What are lymphocytes?
-
-lacolized in lymph nosed causing inflammed nodes during illness
-largest nucleus
-T cells and B cells - What do B cells do?
- Form antibodies
- What do T cells do?
- Kill foreign bodies
- What are the protein parts of plasma?
-
-albumin
-globulins
-fibrinogen - What are the other materials in plasma?
-
-amino acids
-lipids
-glucose
-cholesterol
-enzymes
-hormones
-waste products - What are the waste products found in plasma?
-
-urea
-uric acid
-ammonia salts
-creatinine - Describe albumin
- -most abundent protein in plasma used for transport and maintaining osmotic pressure
- Describe globulins
-
-alpha, beta, gamma
-transport and clotting factors - Describe fibrinogen
-
-mesh for platelets
-clotting - What is serum?
- -liquid left after clotting factores have been removed
- What are the mechanisms for anticoagulation?
-
-tie up calcium
-interfere with thrombin formation
-interfere with vit K - What components make up the urinary system?
-
-bladder
-two ureters
-two kidneys
-urethra - What do kidneys look like?
-
-bean shaped
-dark brown color
-located behind peritoneum
-right kidney slightly lower than left one (dispacement from liver) - What supplies each kidney with blood and from where?
- -renal artery from a branch of the abdominal aorta
- Where does blood exit the kidney and what does this connect to?
- -renal vein connects to the inferior vena cava
- What is the funnel end of each ureter called?
- -the pelvis
- What is the exiting of urine from the bladder called?
- micturition
- What controls micturition?
-
-sphincter vesicae
-sphincter urethrae - Describe the sphincter vesicae.
-
-smooth muscle sphincter near exit of bladder
-when about 300ml of urine accumulates, bladder parasympathetically causes walls to contract moving urine to next sphincter in the urethra. - Describe the sphincter urethrae.
-
-sphincter between urethra and outside environment
-skeletal muscle fibers, volunatarilary controlled
-micturation occurs only when desired - What is the thin covering of the kidney called?
- -renal capsule
- What covers the kidney providing suppor and protection?
- -fatty capsule
- What lays under the renal capsule and what does it look like?
-
-cortex
-reddish brown (due to great blood supply) - What is the next part of the kidney after the cortex?
- -the medulla
- What is the renal medulla divided into?
- -cone shaped renal pyramids
- What is the tissue that extends down between each renal pyramid?
- -cortical tissue in the form of renal columns
- What is the end of each renal pyramid called and where do these project to?
- -renal papilla, which project into a calyx.
- What are calyces and where do these lead?
-
-short tubes that receive urine from the renal papillae
-they empty into the renal pelvis - What is the basic functioning unit of the kidney?
- -nephron
- How many nephrons are estimated to be in each kidney?
-
-about 1 million nephrons!
-80% in cortex, the rest partially in the cortex and medulla - What are nephrons in the cortex called? How about the remainder nephrons?
-
-cortical nephrons
-juxtamedullary nephrons - What three physiological activities result in urine formation?
-
1) filtration
2) reabsorption
3) secretion - Where does urine formation occur in the nephron?
- -different regions which is why urine formed in beginning of nephron is quite unlike the urine that enters the calyces of the kidney
- What is the enlarged end of the nephron called?
- -renal corpuscle
- What are the two parts of a renal corpuscle?
-
1) glomerulus
2) glomerular capsule - What is the glomerulus?
- -an inner tuft of capillaries in the renal capsule
- What is the glomerular capsule?
- -outer double walled cap-like structure in the renal corpuscle
- Where does blood go from the renal artery to get to the nephron?
- -interlobular artery
- From the interlobular artery, how does blood get to the glomerulus?
- -afferent arteriole
- What does blood exit the glomerulus through?
- -efferent arteriole (much smaller than afferent)
- How does glomerular filtrate move?
- High intraglomerular blood pressure forces it to pass into the glomerular capsule.
- What is the fluid made up of that called glomerular filtrate?
-
-glucose
-amino acids
-urea
-salts
-lots of water - Once in the glomerular capsule, where does the filtrate pass to get into the large collecting duct?
-
-proximal convoluted tubule
-descending limb of Henle's loop
-ascending limb of Henle's loop
-distal convoluted tubule
-collecting duct - What are peritubular capillaries?
- -capillaries that enmesh the entire route glomerular filtrate passes while reabsorbing water, glucose, amino acids, and other substances.
- What absorbs up to 80% of the water as filtrate moves through nephron?
- -Walls of the proximal convoluted tubules
- What facilitates water reabsorption and from where?
-
-antidiuretic hormone of teh posterior pituitary
-aldosterone of the adrenal cortex - How is urine altered in the collecting duct?
- -cells lining collecting duct secrete ammonia, uric acid, and other substances.
- Does the brain or the kidney recieve more blood?
- -kidney
- What are the three major functions of the urinary sytem and where do they occur?
-
-all occur in the kidney
1) remove products of cellular metabolism from the body
2) homeostasis of body fluid volume and solute composition
3) control the plasma pH - What is the primary product of urinary system production?
- -urine
- What are the four primary components of the kidney?
-
1) renal capsule
2) renal cortex
3) renal medulla
4) renal pelvis - What is the renal capsule made of?
-
-fibrous connective tissue
-fat deposits - What is the hilus?
- -an indentation of the medial surface of the kidney where the pelvis exits
- What tests are usually part of a urinalysis?
-
-color
-clarity
-glucose
-hemoglobin
-ketones
-leukocyte presence
-odor
-pH
-protein
-specific gravity - What else is done to analyze urine?
- -sediment examination
- What can make urine cloudy?
- -bacteria, blood, sperm, crystals, or mucus
- What can make urine smell different?
-
-E.Coli causes foul odor
-diabetes or starvation causes sweet, fruity odor - What does a high specific gravity mean?
- There are lots of solutes dissolved in the urine. This is from dehydration and vice-versa.
- What is consistantly acidic urine a sign of?
-
-metabolic or respiratory acidosis
-methanol poisoning
-metabolic disorders - What is consistent alkaline urine indicative of?
-
-metabolic and respiratory alkalosis
-urinary tract infections - What would high levels of protein indicate in urine?
-
-glomerular damge
-excessive exervise
-cold exposure
-acute abdominal diseases - What would glucose in the urine mean?
-
-spilling over from exceptionally high blood glucose
-damaged/diseased kidney's - What would high levels of ketones be indicative of?
-
-diabetic ketoacidosis
-diet low in sugars and starches
-starvation
-prolonged vomiting - What would Hb indicate in urine?
-
-destruction of RBC's faster than liver can remove
-lesion along genitourinary tract - What would leukocyte presence indicate?
- -infection is present
- What are some things found in a sediment test?
-
-red or white blood cells
-casts
-crystals
-"critters" - What is meant by "critters" in urine?
-
-bacteria
-yeast cells
-parasites - What are the different types of casts?
-
-hyaline
-granular
-waxy
-RBC
-WBC - What are the different types of crystals?
-
-oxalate (squares with x)
-triple phosphate (coffins)
-cystine (hexagonal) - What lines both the kidney and the ureter?
- -transitional epithelium
- What are the layers of the ureter?
-
-epithelium
-connective tissue
-three layers of smooth muscle
*innermost is longitudinal
*middle is circularly around tube
*outermost is longitudinal again - What is the bladder made of?
-
-transitional epithelium
-underlying connective tissue (lamina propria)
-interwoven smooth muscle wall (no distinct layers) - When empty, transitional epithelium can be seen as what two distinct cells?
- -cuboidal and columnar cells
- After bladder distension, what do the cells look like?
- -squamous epithelial cells
- What double walled epithelium where glomeruli embed?
- -Bowmans capsule
- What is the part of Bowmans capsule that covers the capillaries of glomeruli? How about the outer capsule part?
-
-visceral
-parietal - What are proximal tubules?
- -distinguished by an uneven apical border (it is a brush border)
- What are distal tubules?
- -no brush border so they are distinguished from proximal tubules by the fact that they have a smoother apical surface
- What did we use to perform a specific gravity test?
- -refractometer
-
What fluid lines each alveolus?
What is it for? -
-surfactant
-reduce suface tension of the fluid to prevent alveoli from collapsing as air moves in and out during breathing - What are the parts of the lung?
-
-base
-apex
-convex lateral surface - What is the area between the lungs called?
- -mediastinum
- What does the mediastinum contain?
- -heart, large blood vessels, nerves, trachea, esophagus, and lymphatic vessels and nodes.
- What distinguishes the lobes of the lungs?
- -the major branches of the bronchi
- What are the lobes of each lung?
-
-left lung has two lobes (cranial and caudal)
-right lung has four lobes (cranial, middle, cuadal, and a small accessory lobe)
*horse doesn't have lobes except for accessory lobe on right lung - What is the hilus of the lung?
-
-the only stationary part of lung
-well defined area on medial side where air, blood, lymph, and nerves enter and leave the lung - What lines a typical bronchiole?
-
-smooth muscle
-outer ciliated pseudostratified epithelium - What makes up most of the lung?
- -air spaces
- What is TLC? What composes this?
-
-total lung capacity
-vital capacity and residual volume - What is vital capacity?
- -maximal amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation (4800mL)
-
What is residual volume?
How can this be calculated? -
-volume of air that remains in lungs after amaximal exhalation (1200mL)
-25% of VC in females, 33% in males - What are the subdivisions of vital capacity?
-
-tidal volume
-inspiratory reserve volume
-expiratory reserve volume - What is tidal volume?
- Normal amount of air inhaled or exhaled
-
What is IRV?
ERV? -
-maximum amount of air inhaled after a normal inhalation (3100mL)
-opposite - How do female volumes differ from male inhalation/exhalation?
- -20-25% less
- What is spirometry useful in?
-
-evaluating pulmonary function
-diagnosing pulmonary disorders - What are the two lung classifications for disorders?
-
-obstructive
-restrictive