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Terms
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- Ventilation-
- movement of air
- External respiration-
- Gas exchange between lungs and blood
- Internal respiration-
- Gas exchange between blood and tissues
- Gas exchange
- Oxygen enters blood and carbon dioxide leaves
- Regulation of blood pH
- Altered by changing blood carbon dioxide levels
- Voice production
- Movement of air past vocal folds makes sound and speech
- Olfaction
- Smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into nasal cavity
- Protection
- Against microorganisms by preventing entry and removing them from respiratory surfaces.
- Respiratory System Anatomy
- Nose Paranasal Sinuses Pharynx Larynx Trachea Thoracic Cavity Bronchi Lunges
- Vestibule
- just inside nares
- Hard palate
- floor of nasal cavity
- Nasal septum
- partition dividing cavity.
- Concha
- bony ridges on lateral walls with meatuses between
- Meatuses-
- contain openings to paranasal sinuses
- The sinuses connect to the nasal cavity via
- sinus ostia
- Functions of Nasal Cavity
- Passageway for air Cleans the air- via cilia Humidifies, warms air Smell Along with paranasal sinuses are resonating chambers for speech
- Pharynx
- Common opening for digestive and respiratory systems Three regions: Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx
- Thyroid Cartilage
- largest, Adam’s apple
- Cricoid Cartilage
- most inferior, base of larynx
- Epiglottis
- has a flap near base of tongue. Covers the larynx during swallowing to prevent food from entering- Aspiration
- Trachea
- Contains mucous cells to trap foreign substances and expel them Trachea to terminal bronchioles is ciliated for removal of debris
- Trachea divides into
- two primary bronchi
- Tracheostomy-
- permanent or semipermanent opening in the trachea formed to remove secretions and provide for air flow
- Alveoli-
- site of gas exchange
- Diaphragm-
- the main provider of inspiratory force
- Visceral Pleura-
- covers the lungs
- Parietal Pleura-
- lines the chest cavity
- Pleurisy-
- inflammation of pleura
- Mediastinum-
- central region, contains contents of thoracic cavity (heart, trachea, esophagus, bronchi) except for lungs.
- Right lung
- three lobes- superior, middle, and inferior
- Left lung
- Two lobes- superior and inferior
- Fissures
- separate the lungs. Oblique and Horizontal
- Quiet Inspiration
- (diaphragm, external intercostals) Diaphragm -accounts for 2/3 of increase in size of thoracic volume. Abdominal muscles relax Other muscles: elevate ribs and costal cartilages allow lateral rib movement
- Quiet Expiration
- Is a passive process (i.e., the msucle of inspiration relax). muscles that depress the ribs and sternum: abdominal muscles and internal intercostals. relaxation of diaphragm and external intercostals with contraction of abdominal muscles
- Forceful inspiration
- all inspiratory muscles (i.e., diaphragm, external intercostals, pectoralis minor, scalenes, SCM, and paravertebral muscles) are active and contract more forcefully.
- Forceful expiration
- Will recruit abdominal muscles and internal intercostals.
- Costal Breathing-
- breathing with the ribs, above the diaphragm
- Diaphragmatic Breathing-
- breathing by relaxing the abdomen, forcing the diaphragm to drop and the lungs to expand.
- Eupnea-
- normal quiet breathing
- Apnea-
- temporary cessation of breathing
- Hyperpnea-
- increased depth of breathing
- Tachypnea-
- rapid shallow breathing
- Hypoxia
- decrease in oxygen levels below normal values
- Cough-
- Sudden, spasmodic contraction of the thoracic cavity, resulting in violent release of air and debris from the lungs
- Sneeze-
- convulsive expulsion of air from the nose and mouth. Sends two to five thousand bacteria-filled droplets into the air. 400 miles per hour
- Yawn-
- an involuntary intake of breath
- Hiccup-
- the state of having reflex spasms of the diaphragm accompanied by a rapid closure of the glottis
- Tidal Volume
- amount of air inspired or expired with each breath. At rest: 500 mL
- Inspiratory Reserve Volume
- amount that can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of the tidal volume (3000 mL at rest)
- Expiratory Reserve Volume
- amount that can be forcefully expired after expiration of the tidal volume (100 mL at rest)
- Residual Volume:
- volume still remaining in respiratory passages and lungs after most forceful expiration (1200 mL)
- Inspiratory capacity
- tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume. TV+ IRV
- Functional residual capacity
- expiratory reserve volume plus residual volume. ERV + RV
- Vital capacity:
- sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume. IRV + TV + ERV
- Total lung capacity
- sum of inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus tidal volume and residual volume. IRV + ERV + TV + RV
- Mastication
- chewing
- Ingestion
- introduction of food into stomach
- Propulsion
- swallowing
- Peristalsis
- moves material through digestive tract . Smooth muscle relaxation moves ahead of the bolus of food. Then a wave of contraction of the smooth muscles behind the bolus of food or chyme propels it through the digestive tract.
- Mass movements
- in large intestine
- Bile
- emulsifies fats
- Enzymes
- chemical digestion
- Digestion
- Mechanical and chemical
- Absorption
- Movement from tract into circulation or lymph
- Elimination
- Waste products removed from body; feces. Defecation
- Teeth
- Two sets Primary, deciduous: Childhood Permanent or secondary: Adult (32) Types Incisors, canines, premolars and molars
- Anatomic crown
- enamel-covered part of tooth;
- clinical crown
- is section of tooth above gum line
- Enamel
- outermost layer of anatomical crown. Protective.
- Dentin
- living, cellular, calcified tissue.
- Pulp cavity
- filled with blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
- Periodontal ligaments
- hold tooth in socket.
- Gingiva
- dense, fibrous C.T.
- Palate
- Hard palate: anterior, supported by maxilla and palatine bone Soft palate: posterior, consists of skeletal muscle and connective tissue Uvula: projects from posterior of soft palate
- Esophagus
- Transports food from pharynx to stomach Passes through esophageal hiatus (opening) of diaphragm and ends at stomach Hiatal hernia: widening of hiatus
- Stomach Anatomy: Openings
- Gastroesophageal (cardiac): to esophagus Pyloric: to duodenum
- Stomach Anatomy: Regions
- Cardiac Fundus Body Pylorus
- Stomach Anatomy: Sphincters
- Cardiac (lower esophageal) Pyloric
- Small Intestine Anatomy
- Site of greatest amount of digestion and absorption of nutrients and water Divisions Duodenum Jejunum Ileum
- Large Intestine Anatomy
- Consists of: Cecum Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Rectum Sigmoid colon Anal canal Appendix
- Salivary Glands
- Parotid: largest. Just anterior to the ear. Submandibular: Posterior half of inferior border of mandible. Sublingual: smallest.
- Esophageal phase
- Stretching of esophagus causes a reflex that initiates peristalsis of muscles in the esophagus
- Functions of the Stomach
- Storage of food Mixing the food with gastric secretions until Chyme (ingested food + secretions) is formed Permitting the food to slowly empty into the duodenum Secretion: Chief Cells- Pepsinogen to digest protein Parietal Cells- HCl to kill bacteria Mucous Cells- Mucous to protect stomach lining from digestive enzymes Endocrine cells- regulatory hormones to increase secretions and motility
- Chyme converted to
- feces
- Feces consist of
- water undigested food microorganisms sloughed-off epithelial cells
- Stomach absorbs:
- water, salts, glucose, alcohol
- Small Intestine Absorbs
- Amino Acids, simple sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, minerals
- Large Intestine absorbs
- water and salt
- Functions of the Liver
- Bile production: Neutralizes and dilutes stomach acid Bile salts emulsify fats. Storage Glycogen, fat, vitamins, copper and iron. Nutrient interconversion Amino acids to energy producing compounds Hydroxylation of vitamin D. Detoxification Hepatocytes remove ammonia and convert to urea Phagocytosis phagocytize worn-out and dying red and white blood cells, some bacteria Synthesis Albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, clotting factors
- Gallstones
- precipitated cholesterol Can block cystic duct Can occur because of drastic dieting
- Jaundice-
- yellowing of the skin and eyes caused by excess bile products in the blood.
- endocrine systme
- Glands that secrete chemical signals (hormones) into circulatory system Hormone characteristics Produced in small quantities Secreted into intercellular space Transported some distance in circulatory system Acts on target tissues elsewhere in body Regulate activities of body structures
- Endocrine System Functions
- Metabolism and tissue maturation Ion regulation Water balance Immune system regulation Heart rate and blood pressure regulation Control of blood glucose and other nutrients Control of reproductive functions Uterine contractions and milk release
- Endocrine Glands
- Hypophysis (Pituitary) Thyroid Parathyroid Pancreatic Islets Suprarenal (adrenal) Ovaries Testes Pineal
- Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis):
- extension of the nervous system Secretes neurohormones
- Anterior Pituitary (adenohypophysis)
- Consists of three areas
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Also called vasopressin.
- If the concentration of electrolytes increases or if the concentration of water decreases, then ADH secretion is stimulated. If BP decreases, then ADH secretion is stimulated.
- Oxytocin
- Stimulates uterine contractions Stimulates breast milk production Nursing stimulates oxytocin release to cause uterine contractions and allow for uterine return to normal size post delivery
- Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin-
- Promotes bone and cartilage growth Regulates metabolism Dwarfism, giantism, acromegaly
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- causes secretion and storage of hormones from and within the thyroid gland
- Anterior Pituitary Hormones
- Beta Endorphins-
- Beta Endorphins-
- produce analgesia in response to stress and exercise
- Thyroid Gland
- One of largest endocrine glands Only gland that stores hormone Stimulated by TSH from the Anterior Pituitary Triiodothyronine or T3 Tetraiodothyronine or T4 or thyroxine Increase rate of glucose, fat, protein metabolism in many tissues thus increasing body temperature Normal growth of many tissues dependent on presence of thyroid hormones
- Hypothyroidism
- Too little thyroid hormone. Symptoms include weight gain, constipation, dry skin, and sensitivity to the cold
- Hyperthyroidism
- Too much thyroid hormone. Symptoms include weight loss, chest pain, cramps, diarrhea, and nervousness
- Parathyroid Glands
- Embedded in thyroid Two glands on each side Secrete PTH: target tissues are bone, kidneys and intestines. Increases blood calcium and phosphate levels Regulation depends on calcium levels
- Hyperparathyroidism
- An increase in production of PTH. leading to Ca reabsorption from bone Osteoporosis High kidney levels of Ca kidney stones
- Hypoparathyroidism
- A decrease in the production of PTH Leads to hypocalcemia in the blood Tetany, muscle spasms, death
- Pancreas
- Exocrine gland Produces pancreatic digestive juices Endocrine gland Consists of pancreatic islets Composed of Alpha cells; secrete glucagon Beta cells; secrete insulin Delta cells; secrete somatostatin
- Insulin
- Increases uptake of glucose and amino acids by cells
- Glucagon
- Causes breakdown of glycogen and fats for energy
- Diabetes Mellitus-
- leading to the inability of the body to produce or respond to insulin (which allows the body to use glucose/sugar) properly.
- Diabetes Insipidus-
- a disease of the pituitary (not pancreas) leading to constant thirst and frequent urination.
- Hypoglycemia-
- A deficiency of sugar in the blood caused by too much insulin or too little glucose
- Hyperglycemia-
- High levels of sugar in the blood. In diabetes, this can happen if there is not enough insulin
- Adrenal Glands
- Near superior poles of kidneys Suprarenal Medulla Sympathetic. Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine Suprarenal Cortex: Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids Androgens
- Hormones of the Suprarenal Cortex
- Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone- Increases rate of sodium reabsorption by kidneys increasing sodium blood levels Glucocorticoids: Cortisol -Increases fat and protein breakdown, increases glucose synthesis, decreases inflammatory response Androgens: Weak androgens secreted then converted to testosterone by peripheral tissues. Stimulate pubic and axillary hair growth and sexual drive in females
- Pineal Body
- Located in the Epithalamus Produces hormones that inhibit reproductive function Melatonin- Helps regulate sleep cycles
- Vagina
- muscular walls. For menstrual flow and child birth.
- Uterus
- Cervix- inferior uterus. lined with mucous glands Fundus- top of the uterus Peritoneum- tissue that lines the abdominal wall Broad Ligament- extension of peritoneum spread on each side of uterus Perimetrium- outer layer. Peritoneum of the uterus Myometrium- smooth muscle Endmetrium- innermost layer. mucous membrane
- Uterine Tubes
- Fallopian Tubes- transport oocyte (unfertilized egg) or zygote (fertilized egg) from the ovary to the uterus Isthmus- junction of the cervix and body of the uterus Ampulla- thin walled mid region of fallopian tube Infundibulum- location of fertilization Fimbriae- long thin processes at the infundibulum
- Ovaries
- Stroma- connective tissue of the ovary Graafian Follicles- contains the mature egg within the ovary
- Dysmenorrhea-
- painful menstruation
- Amenorrhea-
- absence of menstruation
- Premenstrual Syndrome-
- mood swings associated with premenstruation
- Menopausal Syndrome-
- cessation of menstrual cycles
- Cervical Cancer-
- 2nd most common in women. Caused by the HPV virus
- Testes
- Located outside the body cavity because sperm require lower-than-body temperature for development Testis serve as both Exocrine Gland: sperm cells Endocrine Gland: testosterone
- Epididymis-
- site of sperm cell maturation
- Spermatozoa-
- the mature sperm cell
- Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens) -
- The two muscular tubes that carry sperm from the epididymis to the urethra. Vasectomy