AP final
Terms
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- an exteroceptor monitors
- -the external environment (touch/temp/pain)
- -an interoceptor monitors
- -the visceral organs (lungs/heart/intestines)
- -a proprioceptor monitors
- -joint positions
- -mechanoreceptors are stimulated by
- -something mechanical
- -where are nociceptors located and what stimulates them?
- -in the dermis and joint capsules; extremes in chemical changes
- -where are thermoreceptors and what stimulates them?
- -free nerve endings in the skin; extreme temperatures
- -what are the 3 kinds of mechanoreceptors?
- -tactile, baroreceptors, proprioceptors
- -where are tactile receptors found?
- -in the skin
- -where are baroreceptors found and what stimulates them?
- -stretchy organs; pressure changes (ex: standing up fast)
- -where are proprioceptors found and what stimulates them?
- -joint capsules; pressure, tension, movement of joints/tendon
- -where are chemoreceptors found and what stimulates them?
- -aortic & carotid arteries, medulla ob.; chemical changes
- -these receptors are always active and the frequency indicates the level of background stimulation
- -tonic receptors
- -these receptors are normally inactive but respond to a change based on the intensity and rate of change
- -phasic receptors
- -will slow adapting receptors adapt quickly to a stimulus?
- -no, fast adapting will. slow adaptind will continue to let you know about the stimulus (like a tack in your foot)
- -which neuron brings the sensation to the CNS?
- -the first-order neuron
- -this is the neuron that “crosses over†in the CNS
- -second-order neuron
- -this neuron will be used only if awareness is to be reached
- -third-order neuron
- -what stimulates the posterior column pathway
- -fine touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception
- -this pathway allows us to recognize things without sight
- -posterior column pathways
- -this pathways begins at spinal cord and ends at the thalamus
- -spinothalamic pathways
- -what organ decides if we need to be aware?
- thalamus
- -which pathway does NOT have a 3rd order neuron?
- -spinocerebellar pathway
- -where are interoceptors found?
- -medulla oblongata
- -this pathway creates referred pain, where the area around a painful organ sends the message
- -visceral sensory pathways
- -this system controls contractions of skeletal muscles
- -somatic nervous system
- -where does the axon travel in a somatic pathway?
- -NMJ
- -this pathway has voluntary control over skeletal muscles
- -corticospinal pathway
- -this pathway has control over gross movement of trunk and proximal limbs
- - medial pathway
- -this pathways has control of distill limbs (hands/ankles/toes)
- -lateral pathways
- -all muscle contractions are coordinated by what 2 things?
- -basal nuclei (cerebral nuclei) and cerebellum
- -what is the main difference between the ANS and SNS?
- -SNS only goes ONE place (skeletal muscles)
- -both the ANS and SNS has what?
- -effectors
- -this system controls smooth and cardiac muscle, glands
- -ANS
- -what are the 2 major divisions of the ANS?
- -sympathetic and parasympathetic
- -this system has a single neuron chain
- -SNS
- -describe the neuron chain in the the ANS
- -preganglionic neuron-->synapse to autonomic ganglia --->synapse to effector
- -how many chains does the ANS have?
- -2 chains
- -when is the sympathetic system active?
- -during times of stress; emergencies, physical exertion
- -what is the role of the parasympathetic division?
- -non-stressful times; rest and digest, conserves energy
- -what is the origin site for the sympathetic division?
- -thoracic and lumbar portion of spinal nerves
- -what is the origin site for the parasympathetic division?
- -brain stem and saccral areas (like polls!)
- -this system has short preganglionic fibers and long ganglionic ones
- -sympathetic
- -this system has long preganglionic fibers and short ganglionic ones (that are near the organ)
- -parasympathetic
- -where is the ganglia in the sympathetic division?
- -near spinal cord
- -where is the ganglia in the parasympathetic division?
- -near or in the target organ
- -this type of memory is for immediate recall
- -short-term memory
- -how do you turn short-term memory into long-term?
- -with rehearsal
- -what is the term for turning short-term memory into long-term memory?
- -consolidation
- -developed reflexes (riding a bike) is what kind of memory?
- -skill memory
- -what does the limbic system do in terms of memory?
- -connects memories with emotions
- -what is anterograde amnesia?
- -you can't consolidate new memories
- -what is retrograde amnesia?
- -you lose memories of past events (unlikely to come back)
- -once memories are made, where do they go?
- -appropriate association areas of the brain (sound, taste, etc.)
- -this measures the electrical activity in the brain
- -EEG; electroencephalogram
- -these brain waves occur in healthy, awake adults
- -Alpha waves
- -these brain waves are found in a concentrating, stressed, tense adult
- -beta waves
- -these brain waves are typical in children or a very frustrated adult
- -theta waves
- -these brain waves are found in deep sleep of adults and children, but if found in awake adults it may indicate brain damage
- -delta waves
- where do the sympathetic chain ganglia target?
- visceral effectors in thoracic cavity, head, body wall, limbs
- what is sympathetic chain ganglia activated by?
- norepinephrine
- what are collateral ganglia activated by?
- norepinephrine
- what are adrenal medullae activated by?
- norepinephrine and epinephrine
- where is the target for collateral ganglia?
- visceral effectors in the abdominopelvic cavity
- where is the target for adrenal medullae?
- organs and systems throughout the body (it receives action potential and then releases into the bloodstream to diffuse anywhere in the body)
- where is sympathetic activation controlled?
- hypothalamus
- where are the neurotransmitters released in the sympathetic division?
- telodendria
- instead of forming a synaptic knob, neurons in the sympathetic divisions form a:
- branching network of telodendria to effect a large area of the target organ
- what is the most common neurotransmitter released in the sympathetic system?
- norepinepherine
- alpha receptors are found on
- smooth muscle
- beta receptors are found:
- in the membranes of skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, liver
- the most common alpha receptor is
- alpha-1
- what does an alpha-1 receptor do?
- produces excitatory response
- what does an alpha-2 receptor do?
- produces inhibitory response
- What does a beta-1 blocker do?
- decreases metabolic activity because it blocks the increase of it for the heart and kidney
- all neurotransmitters in the parasympathetic system release what
- ACh
- what are the most common receptors in the PNS?
- nicotinic receptors
- where are nicotonic receptors located?
- skeletal muscle NMJ's
- stimulation of a nicotonic receptor will ALWAYS produce what?
- an excitatory response - ALWAYS an action potential in target cell
- where are muscarinic receptors located?
- certain effector cells of postganglionic parasympathetic neurons
- what kind of response does a muscarinic receptor produce?
- a long lasting effect - once they are stimulated, they stay stimulated for awhile - their response can be excitatory or inhibitory
- what is dual innervation?
- organs that receive info from for SNS and PNS
- where does dual innervation occur?
- at a plexus
- this system uses hormones to stimulate target organs
- endocrine
- in the exocrine system, secretions are discharged:
- onto epithelial surface (like sweat, saliva, tears)
- in the endocrine system, secretion is released into:
- surrounding interstitial fluid and absorbed into blood vessels and transported to the target organ
- what are the main endocrine glands?
- thyroid, pituitary, parathyroid, pineal
- the main purpose of the endocrine system is
- to produce hormones
- the anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the
- hypothalamus
- the anterior pituitary gland secretes this that affects the thyroid
- TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)
- what is the purpose of TSH?
- to trigger the release of thyroid hormones and travels back to hypothalamus to stop the release of TRH.
- the less TRH, the more:
- TSH
- ACTH effects the
- anterior pituitary gland
- Gonadotropins (FSH and LH) regulate:
- activity of the gonads
- What is the function of PRL in females and males?
- females: stimulate mammary glands and milk production; males: role with androgens
- as PRL increases, what will happen with PIH?
- PIH (prolactin-inhibitory hormone) will increase
- What are the 2 main functions of growth hormone?
- promotes protein synthesis and stimulates at usage and spares glucose from ATP synthesis
- acromegaly:
- excessive amounts of growth hormone after puberty and affects hands/feet/face (on top of epithelial plates)
- Oxytocin is regulated by
- sensory nerves
- is oxytocin negative or positive feedback?
- POSITIVE - if some is released, it triggers more to be released (ex: labor contractions, sexual arousal)
- what is ADH?
- antidiuretic hormone - holds in fluid
- what is the function of ADH?
- conserve water that is released as urine
- C cells in the thyroid produce
- calcitonin (effects osteoblasts and increases bone production)
- what are the 4 main functions of T3 and T4?
- metabolism, heat production, cardiovascular system, skeletal system
- what regulates T3 and T4 secretion?
- TSH from anterior pituitary gland
- in hypothyroidism, there is too little:
- iodine (low metabolism)
- in hyperthyroidism, there is an excess of:
- iodine (increases metabolism)
- what does the parathyroid gland secrete?
- PTH
- what is the purpose of PTH?
- regulation of calcium levels - when calcium is too low, it helps to find calcium by regulating osteoclast activity.
- where does mineralocorticoids come from?
- andrenal glands/suprarenal glands
- where is the function of mineralocorticoid?
- to retain sodium in the bloodstream
- what is the primary hormone produced in glucocorticoids?
- cortisol
- what regulates glococorticoid secretion?
- ACTH
- what is the main function of glucocorticoids?
- anti-iinflammatory; inhibits WBC activity and decreases the release of histamine
- what does the pineal gland secrete?
- melatonin
- what regulates melatonin?
- the amount of light - more light = less melatonin
- what is the main function of melatonin?
- sets our circadian rhythm
- the main function of insulin is
- to accelerate glucose intake into cells and lower the blood glucose level
- what happens in type 1 diabetes?
- body doesn't produce insulin and cells become glucose starved, so the glucose goes into the urine and can cause excessive dehydration
- alpha cells produce:
- glucagon
- beta cells produce:
- insulin
- glucagon raises:
- blood glucose
- type 2 diabetes is when:
- your body produces insulin, but your receptors don't recognize it (typical in obese people over the age of 40)
- erythropoietin (EPO) and renin are secreted from the
- kidney
- EPO will be released when:
- oxygen levels are LOW
- renin will be released when:
- there is a decrease in blood volume