Human Biology Exam 1
Terms
undefined, object
copy deck
- 4 Fundamental Processes
- 1. Glycolysis 2. Transition Reaction 3. Krebs Cycle 4. Electron Transport System
- Glycolysis
- Glucose has 6 Carbons. Convert into pyruvate. Yield 2 ATP & 2 NADH.
- Pyruvate ---> Lactic Acid
- Anaerobic (no oxygen)
- Transition Reaction
- Converts 3 Carbon pyruvate to 2 Carbon Acetyl CoA.
- Krebs Cycle
- 1. Acetyl CoA (2C) 2. Citrate (6C) 3. 2 CO2 4. 3 NADH 5. 1 FADH2 6. Oxaloacetate (4C)
- Where do 1 FADH2 & 3 NADH move on to in Krebs Cycle?
- Electron Transport System
- What drops off electrons from NADH & FADH2?
- Electron Transport System
- What pumps hydrogen ions into the space between the inner & outer mitochondrial membrane?
- Electron Movement
- What allows hydrogen ions to move inward, spin enzyme, & couple ATP to extra phosphate?
- ATP Synthase Enzyme
- ADP + P =
- ATP
- Atoms are composed of:
- Protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-)
- The atomic NUMBER is equal to:
- The number of protons.
- The atomic MASS is equal to:
- The number of protons & neutrons.
- # Protons =
- # Electrons
- Electrons determine bonding because:
- - Atoms combine to form molecules. - Orbitals: 2 electrons in first orbital (8 in 2nd, 3rd). - Atoms are most stable when outer orbital is full.
- The strongest type of bond
- Covalent Bond
- Organic
- Life Chemistry; carbon-containing compounds.
- Two types of covalent bonds
- Double & Triple
- Weaker than ionic bonds
- Hydrogen Bonds
- Water
- - Classic example of hydrogen bond. - Oxygen is an electron hog (pulls e- closer to its own nucleus).
- Water characteristics
- - Good solvent. - Dissolves salts & sugars. - Dissolves charged particles. - Cannot dissolve non-charged molecules (fats/oils). - High heat capacity (easy to maintain body temp.) - Allows cooling (sweat).
- pH
- Measure of H+ ion concentration of 1 x 10^x molar.
- pH2
- Highly acidic (.01 Molar)
- pH12
- Basic (.00000000001 Molar)
- pH7
- Neutral
- Biological Molecules
- - Carbohydrates - Lipids (fats) - Proteins - Nucleic Acids(a.k.a. DNA)
- Carbohydrate
- - Energy storage - C6H1206 - simple sugar - Carbon = our energy source
- monosaccharide + monosaccharide =
- disaccharide + H2O
- Dehydration Synthesis
- Links 2 building blocks together.
- Glycogen
- Complex of multiple sugar molecules linked together. Stored (for energy) in muscles & liver.
- Lipids
- Fats; energy storage, cell membranes
- Triglycerides =
- 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
- Fatty Acids can be:
- Saturated (solid fat) or unsaturated (liquid; double bonds generate kinks)
- Phospholipid
- - Composes cell membranes - Has TWO fatty acid tails and a phosphate head. - Fatty acid tails are noncharged (avoid H2O). - Phosphate heads are charged (will associate with H2O).
- Steroids
- Hormones; trigger changes in body functions; come from cholesterol.
- Proteins
- - Composed of amino acids (20 different amino acids). --- Amino acids linked together in continuous chain. Order of amino acids (sequence) determines shape of protein. - Biochemical molecules. - Amino acids have a carboxyl group (have an amino group).
- 1^0
- Sequence
- 2^0
- Helix, Sheet
- 3^0
- Globular - FUNCTION
- 4^0
- Multiple separate proteins linked together.
- Enzymes
- - Proteins that catalyze reactions. - Must have specific binding site (shape). - Substrates bind - turn into products.
- Examples of Nucleic Acids
- DNA & RNA
- Nucleotide
- Composed of phosphate, sugar, and nitrogen base; linked into chains - backbone is phosphate and sugar linkage.
- RNA - N2 bases =
- C, G, A, U
- DNA - N2 bases =
- - C, G, A, T - Doublestranded - Linked together with H bonds between bases. - A-T; G-C (base pairing)
- Single Strand
- RNA
- Double Helix (Double Twisted Strand)
- DNA
- - 3 Phosphates + Ribose + Adenine - Stores a large amount of engergy.
- ATP
- ATP [Charged Battery] --->
- ADP + P [Discharged Battery]
- Having multiple cells allows:
- - Specialization of function. - Healing if a few cells are damaged.
- Small cell size is crucial to allow:
- A fast diffusion of nutrients.
- Eukaryotic
- True nucleus (store DNA inside).
- Prokaryotic
- No nucleus (loose DNA).
- Plasma Membrane
- - Composed of Phospholipids (mostly liquid; oily) - Oil bubble - water inside & outside. - Many proteins inside cell (plasma) membrane.
- Transport Proteins
- More substances across membrane.
- Cell Adhesion Molecules
- Link cells together.
- Simple Diffusion
- - No protein transport required. - Molecules move from HIGH to LOW concentration. - Molecule must be permeable to cell membrane.
- Passive Transport
- - Requires specialized proteins which function as carrier. - Proteins bind to molecule (change shape, carry molecule across membrane) - Molecules move from HIGH to LOW concentration.
- Active Transport
- - Move from LOW to HIGH concentration - Requires energy. - Utilizes ATP.
- Endocytosis
- Uses cell membrane to engulf something outside cell (store if in a vesicle).
- Exocytosis
- Release contents of an internal vesicle to outside of cell (hormones, neurotransmitters).
- Osmosis
- - Transport of water. Water moves down a concentration gradient. - Cells in a hypertonic (higher concentration) solution will shrink - Cells in hypotonic solution swell.
- Hypertonic
- More dissolved solutes than normal interior of cell (more concentrated solution); LOWER H2O concentration.
- Nucleus
- - Carries DNA as loose chromatin. - Filled w/ nucleoplasm (liquid). - Surrounded by NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (nuclear pore).
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- - Membrane (smooth OR rough)
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Contains ribosomes (protein synthesis)
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- No ribosomes - phospholipid synthesis (cell membrane)
- Ribosomes
- Read the code in messenger RNA; synthesize protein.
- Golgi Complex
- Receives proteins from Endoplasmic Reticulum; final processing of protein shape; Packaging proteins in vesicles.
- Lysosome
- - Vesicle containing degradable enzymes. - Breaks down proteins in certain vesicles. - Digests particles in food vacuoles.
- Mitochondria
- - Are descendants of once free-living bacteria. - Primary source for ATP synthesis. - 2 membranes (inner & outer)
- Centriole
- Function as anchor points for cell spindle apparatus (cell division).
- Microtubules
- - Provide a transport system (like conveyor belts). - Motor proteins (walk along them, pull organelles/vesicles around cell).
- Metabolism
- Break down Carbon compounds, use energy to produce ATP; occurs within cells - cytoplasm & mitochondria.
- DNA ------------> mRNA
- RNA Polymerase
- ATCG
- DNA
- UAGC
- RNA
- Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- - Direct transcript of DNA. - Carry DNA code to cytoplasm.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- - Carries an amino acid. - Binds to mRNA.
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- Site for protein production
- AUG
- Start codon
- Stop codons
- UAA UAG UGA
- Codon
- 3 base group that codes for a single amino acid.
- mRNA is immature after:
- Transcription
- Exon-Exon
- Mature mRNA
- T-shaped RNA structure
- tRNA
- 5-Step Process for Transcription
- Step 1- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) binds mRNA. Step 2- tRNA base pairs mRNA, carries amino acid. Step 3- 2nd tRNA base pairs mRNA, 2 adjacent amino acids form peptide bond. Step 4- 1st tRNA releases its amino acid, floats away & rRNA shifts over 1 codon. Step 5- New tRNA drops in & binds codon, new peptide bond forms, repeat process until you reach stop codon.
- Anaerobic Metabolism
- Glycolysis continues in absence of oxygen.
- Stem Cells
- - Used as "spare parts". - Have not completed their differentiation. - Can regrow damaged tissue. - Can come from frozen embryos.
- Totipotent Stem Cell
- Can become any cell (POTENTial)
- Pluripotent Stem Cell
- Can become MOST cells
- Multipotent Stem Cell
- Fairly limited set of cells.
- Parent DNA Strand
- Saved from original DNA
- Daughter DNA Strand
- Newly synthesized DNA
- Enzyme DNA Prelimerase
- Reads parental strand & base pairs it to form a new daughter strand. Seals nucleotides in daughter strand to form continuous chain.
- Mutation
- Error in DNA synthesis.
- RNA Prelimerase
- Make nucleic acids, makes a message