Logical Fallacies 2
Terms
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- Slothful Induction
- the conclusion of a strong inductive argument is denied despite the evidence to the contrary
- Fallacy of Exclusion
- evidence which would change the outcome of an inductive argument is excluded from consideration
- Accident
- a generalization is applied when circumstances suggest that there should be an exception
- Converse Accident
- an exception is applied in circumstances where a generalization should apply
- Post Hoc
- because one thing follows another, it is held to cause the other
- Joint effect
- one thing is held to cause another when in fact they are both the joint effects of an underlying cause
- Insignificant
- one thing is held to cause another, and it does, but it is insignificant compared to other causes of the effect
- Wrong Direction
- the direction between cause and effect is reversed
- Complex Cause
- the cause identified is only a part of the entire cause of the effect
- Begging the Question
- the truth of the conclusion is assumed by the premises
- Irrelevant Conclusion
- an argument in defense of one conclusion instead proves a different conclusion
- Straw Man
- the author attacks an argument different from (and weaker than) the opposition's best argument
- Equivocation
- the same term is used with two different meanings
- Amphiboly
- the structure of a sentence allows two different interpretations
- Accent
- the emphasis on a word or phrase suggests a meaning contrary to what the sentence actually says
- Composition
- because the attributes of the parts of a whole have a certain property, it is argued that the whole has that property
- Division
- because the whole has a certain property, it is argued that the parts have that property
- Affirming the Consequent
- any argument of the form: If A then B, B, therefore A
- Denying the Antecedent
- any argument of the form: If A then B, Not A, thus Not B
- Inconsistency
- asserting that contrary or contradictory statements are both true
- Fallacy of Four Terms
- a syllogism has four terms
- Undistributed Middle
- two separate categories are said to be connected because they share a common property
- Illicit Major
- the predicate of the conclusion talks about all of something, but the premises only mention some cases of the term in the predicate
- Illicit Minor
- the subject of the conclusion talks about all of something, but the premises only mention some cases of the term in the subject
- Fallacy of Exclusive Premises
- a syllogism has two negative premises
- Fallacy of Drawing an Affirmative Conclusion From a Negative Premise:
- as the name implies
- Existential Fallacy
- a particular conclusion is drawn from universal premises
- Subverted Support
- The phenomenon being explained doesn't exist
- Non-support
- Evidence for the phenomenon being explained is biased
- Untestability
- The theory which explains cannot be tested
- Limited Scope
- The theory which explains can only explain one thing
- Limited Depth
- The theory which explains does not appeal to underlying causes
- Too Broad
- The definition includes items which should not be included
- Too Narrow
- The definition does not include all the items which should be included
- Failure to Elucidate
- The definition is more difficult to understand than the word or concept being defined
- Circular Definition
- The definition includes the term being defined as a part of the definition
- Conflicting Conditions
- The definition is self-contradictory
- False Dilemma
-
two choices are given when in fact there are three options
- From Ignorance
- because something is not known to be true, it is assumed to be false
- Slippery Slope
- a series of increasingly unacceptable consequences is drawn
- Complex Question
-
two unrelated points are conjoined as a single proposition
- Appeal to Force
- the reader is persuaded to agree by force
- Appeal to Pity
- the reader is persuaded to agree by sympathy
- Consequences
- the reader is warned of unacceptable consequences
- Prejudicial Language
- value or moral goodness is attached to believing the author
- Popularity
- a proposition is argued to be true because it is widely held to be true
- Attacking the Person:
-
1. the person's character is attacked
2. the person's circumstances are noted
3. the person does not practise what is preached - Appeal to Authority
-
1. the authority is not an expert in the field
2. experts in the field disagree
3. the authority was joking, drunk, or in some other way not being serious - Anonymous Authority
- the authority in question is not named
- Style Over Substance
- the manner in which an argument (or arguer) is presented is felt to affect the truth of the conclusion
- Hasty Generalization
- the sample is too small to support an inductive generalization about a population
- Unrepresentative Sample
- the sample is unrepresentative of the sample as a whole
- False Analogy
- the two objects or events being compared are relevantly dissimilar