AP Bio Exam
Terms
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- Properties of Water
- Excellent solvent, high heat capacity, ice is less dense, strong cohesion and high surface tension, high adhesion
- Hydrophilic
- Dissolves in water. Polar or ionic
- Hydrophobic
- Does not dissolve in water. Nonpolar or covalent
- Heat Capacity
- The degree to which a substance changes temperature as a result of gaining or losing energy in the form of heat. Large bodies of water thus have very stable temperatures.
- Macromolecules
- Large molecules consisting of hundreds to thousands of atoms
- Hydroxyl Group
- -OH, alcohols
- Carboxyl Group
- -COOH, carboxylic acids
- Amino Group
- -NH2, amines
- Phosphate
- -PO4, organic phosphates
- Carbonyl
- -CO, ketones, aldehydes
- Methyl
- -CH3, no class name
- Carbohydrates
- Sugar macromolecules
- Monosaccharide
- The simplest form of carbohydrate, made up of a single sugar molecule. Includes fructose and glucose.
- Disaccharide
- Two monosaccharides joined through a glycosidic linkage. Includes sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
- Dehydration Reaction
- A reaction such as the synthesis of a disaccharide in which a single water molecule is lost.
- Polysaccharide
- A polymer of many monosaccharides, includes starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
- Starch
- Polymer of alpha glucose. The principle energy storage molecule in plant cells.
- Glycogen
- Polymer of alpha glucose. A major energy sotrage molecule in animal cells.
- Cellulose
- Polymer of beta glucose. A structural molecule in the walls of plant cells.
- Chitin
- A polymer of beta glucose. A structural molecule in the walls of fungus cells and in the exoskeletons of insects, arthopods, and mollusks.
- Lipids
- Macromolecules which are insoluble in water, but soluble in nonpolar substances, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
- Triglycerides
- Includes fats, oils, and waxes. Made up of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
- Saturated Fatty Acid
- A fatty acid with only single bonds
- Monounsaturated Fatty Acid
- A fatty acid with a single double bond
- Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
- A fatty acid with multiple double bonds.
- Phospholipids
- A lipid structurally similar to a triglyceride except that one of the fatty acids is replaced with a phosphate group, which is hydrophilic.
- Amphipathic
- Molecules with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends.
- Steroids
- Lipids made up of four linked carbon rings. Examples include cholesterol and certain hormones.
- Proteins
- A type of macromolecule which is made up of many amino acids linked through peptide bonds.
- Primary Structure
- The order of amino acids in a protein.
- Secondary Structure
- The 3-D shape that results from hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids.
- Alpha Helix
- A spiral shaped protein resulting from hydrogen bonding in the secondary structure.
- Beta Pleated Sheet
- A folded plane shaped protein resulting from hydrogen bonding in the secondary structure.
- Tertiary Structure
- Three dimensional structure of a protein resulting from hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, the hydrophobic effect, and disulfide bonds.
- Hydrophobic Effect
- The effect on the tertiary structure of proteins when hydrophobic R groups move toward the center of a protein and away from the water.
- Disulfide Bonds
- Bonds between the sulfur atoms in cysteines, affecting the tertiary structure of a protein.
- Quarternary Structure
- A protein made from two or more peptide chains.
- DNA Nucleotide
- The monomer of nucleic acids, made up of a nitrogen base, deoxyribose (a five carbon sugar), and a phosphate group.
- Antiparallel
- The way in which the two strands of DNA are arranged, that is, the 5' and 3' ends are opposite
- Enzyme
- A globular protein which acts as a catalyst of metabolic reactions. Each substrate is specific to a specific substrate
- Substrate
- The substance on which an enzyme acts.
- Induced Fit Model
- Each protein has an active site, where the reactants fit. The reactants form the enzyme to change shape into a position which increases the rate of the reaction.
- Cofactors
- Nonprotein molecules which assist enzymes.
- Holoenzyme
- The union of a cofactor and an enzyme
- Coenzyme
- Organic cofactors, which assist in the reactions.
- Inorganic Cofactors
- Are often metal ions, and also assist in the reactions.
- Allosteric Enzymes
- Enzymes with two bonding sites, one as the active site and one for an allosteric effector
- Allosteric Activator
- A substance that binds to an allosteric enzyme and induces the active form of the enzyme.
- Allosteric Inhibitor
- A substance that binds to an allosteric enzyme and induces the inactive form of the enzyme.
- Feedback Inhibition
- When the end product of a series of metabolic reactions acts as an allosteric inhibitor in order to end the reaction series.
- Competitive Inhibition
- When a substance mimics a substrate and binds to the active site of an enzyme, thus preventing any catalyzation from occuring.
- Noncompetitor Inhibitor
- A substance that binds to an enzyme somewhere besides the active site, changing its shape so that it cannot work.
- Cooperativity
- When an enzyme with multiple active sites becomes more receptive after one of its sites has been filled.
- Cytosol
- The fluid matrix in which the organelles of a cell are suspended
- Peripheral Proteins
- Proteins which attach to either the inner or outer surface of a phospholipid bilayer.
- Integral Proteins
- Proteins which extend through one surface of a phospholipid bilayer; are amphipathic
- Transmembrane Proteins
- Proteins which extend all the way through both ends of a phospholipid bilayer.
- Phospholipid Membrane
- A selectively permeable membrane which only allows small, uncharged, polar molecules, hydrophobic molecules, and lipid-soluble molecules to pass through
- Channel Proteins
- Provide passageways through a membrane for hydrophilic substances
- Transport Proteins
- Use ATP to actively transport substances across a membrane.
- Recognition Proteins
- Distingiush the identity of neighboring cells. Have short polysaccharide chains attached, which stick out from the surface of the cell.
- Glycoproteins
- Proteins with polysaccharide chains attached.
- Adhesion Proteins
- Proteins which attach to neighboring cells.
- Receptor Proteins
- Provide binding sites for hormornes or other similar molecules.
- Electron Transfer Proteins
- Transfer electrons from one molecule to another during redox reactions.
- Cholesterol
- Is distributed throughout phospholipid bilayers to provide rigidity in animal cells.
- Sterols
- Provide rigidity to plant phospholipid bilayers.
- Glycocalyx
- The collective group of oligosaccharides attached to glycoproteins, which provide for cell to cell recognition.
- Chromatin
- Threads of DNA, the state which it exists during interphase
- Nucleosomes
- Bundles of DNA coiled around histones
- Ribosomes
- The centers for production of proteins
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Creates glycoproteins
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Synthesizes various lipids and hormones. Breaks down toxins and drugs in liver cells.
- Golgi Apparatus
- Modify and package proteins and lipids into vesicles
- Vesicles
- Small spherical sacs which originate at the Golgi Apparatus and release their contents outside the cell by merging with the membrane.
- Lysosomes
- Special vesicles which contain digestive enzymes; they break down food, cellular debris, and bacteria. Only seen in animal cells.
- Peroxisomes
- Break down hydrogen peroxide to water.
- Microtubules
- Part of the cytoskeleton; made of tubulin; provides support and motility; found in the spindle apparatus and in flagella and cilia
- Intermediate Filaments
- Part of the cytoskeleton; provide support for maintaining the shape of a cell.
- Microfilaments
- Part of the cytoskeleton; made of actin; involved with cell motility; found in muscle cells and other cells which often move
- Centrioles
- Act as microtubule organizing centers; a pair of them are located outside the nuclear envelope and create the spindle apparatus.
- Basal Bodies
- Act as microtubule organizing centers at the base of cilia and flagella
- Cell Walls
- Only found in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria; made from cellulose in plants and chitin in fungi
- Transport vesicles
- Move substances between organelles or from the interior to exterior of a cell
- Food vacuoles
- Temporary nutrient storage sites; often merge with lysosomes to break down food
- Storage vacuoles
- Only found in plants; store starch, pigments, and toxins
- Central Vacuoles
- Large bodies which make up most of the interior of plant cells, when filled with water they exert turgor on the cell walls to maintain rigidity
- Turgor
- Pressure exerted on plant cell walls by a full central vacuole
- Contractile Vacuoles
- Organelles in single-celled organisms which pump water in and out of the cell.
- Cell Junctions
- Organelles which connect cells to each other or provide passageways for cellular exchange
- Desmosomes
- Proteins which attach animal cells to each other
- Tight Junctions
- Tight seals between animal cells, which completely encircles each cell.
- Gap Junctions
- Narrow tunnels between animal cells made up of connexons; ions and small molecules are allowed to pass but not the cytoplasm
- Plasmodesmata
- Narrow tunnels between plant cells. A tube of ER called a desmotubule passes through the opening
- Characteristics of Plant Cells
- Cell walls, chloroplasts, central vacuoles; no lysosomes or centrioles
- Characteristics of Prokaryotes
- No nucleus, one single DNA molecule, smaller ribosomes, cell walls made from peptidoglycans, flagella not made from microtubules
- Hypertonic
- Higher concentration of solutes
- Hypotonic
- Lower concentration of solutes
- Isotonic
- Equal concentration of solutes
- Bulk Flow
- The collective movement of substances in the same direction due to some force or pressure.
- Passive Transport
- The movement of substances down their concentration gradient
- Dialysis
- The diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane.
- Plasmolysis
- The movement of water out of a cell, resulting in the cells collapse.
- Facilitated Diffusion
- The diffusion of solutes through channel proteins.
- Countercurrent Exchange
- The diffusion of substances where bulk flow is occuring in opposite directions
- Active Transport
- The movement of solutes against the concentration gradient, requiring the expentidure of energy.
- Vesicular Transport
- The use of vesicles to move larger particles across the plasma membrane.
- Exocytosis
- A type of vesicular transport in which the vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents to the outside of the cell.
- Endocytosis
- A type of vesicular transport in which the plasma membrane engulfs a particle outside of the cell.
- Phagocytosis
- Type of endocytosis in which undissolved material enters the cell. The membrane wraps around the material, forming a vesicle.
- Pinocytosis
- Type of endocytosis, where dissolved substances enter the cell; the membrane folds inward to form a channel into the cell.
- Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
- A type of endocytosis, in which specific molecules outside of the cell bind of receptors on the plasma membrane. The receptors fold inward to form a vesicle.
- Population
- A group of all the same species living in one area.
- Community
- A group of populations in one area.
- Ecosystem
- The relationships between the organisms in a community and the physical environment.
- Biosphere
- All of Earth which contains life; including the upper soil, the lower atmosphere, and bodies of water.
- Habitat
- The type of place in which an organism inhabits; including other organisms in hte area and physical and chemical characteristics
- Niche
- All the biotic and abiotic resources in an envrionment used by an organism
- Population Size
- Represented by "N", the total number of individuals in a population
- Density
- Total number of individuals per area or volume
- Dispersion
- The way in which a population is distributed; can be clumped, uniform, or random
- Biotic Potential
- The maximum growth rate of a population under perfectly ideal conditions, with unlimited resources and no growth restrictions
- Carrying Capacity
- The maximum population size that can be sustained by a certain habitat
- Limiting Factors
- Elements which prevent a population from reaching its biotic potential
- Density Dependent Factors
- Elements, such as resouces, whose limiting effect on a population increases proportionally to the size of the population
- Density Independent Factors
- Limiting factors which are not affected by population size, such as natural disasters and climate extremes.
- Growth Rate Equation
-
(Births - Deaths)/N
N=initial population - Intrinsic Rate
- The maximum reproductive rate of a population
- Logistic Growth
- Occurs when limiting factors create a carrying capacity, resulting in an S shaped curve.
- R-selected Species
- Species which exhibit exponential growth; most are opportunistic, produce many offspring and mature quickly
- K-selected Species
- Species whose populations remain relatively constant around the carrying capacity (K); most produce few, large offspring which require parental care
- Human Exponential Growth Factors
- Manmade increases in food supply, medicines, reduction in waste, expansion of habitat
- Interspecific Competition
- Competition between different species
- Competitive Exclusion Principle
- Also called Gause's Principle, it states that when two species are competing for exactly the same resources, one will outcompete the other, which will be eliminated eventually
- Resource Partitioning
- A way in which multiple species can coexist in the same habitat, by using up different resources.
- Character Displacement
- A result of resource partitioning, natural selection of characteristics which allow a population to obtain resources in their partition occurs, reducing competition
- Realized Niche
- The niche in which an organism inhabits when other competitors are present
- Fundamental Niche
- The niche in which an organism inhabits when no competing species are present
- True Predator
- An organism which kills and eats another animal.
- Parasitoid
- An insect which lays its eggs on or in a host, when the eggs hatch the larvae consume the tissues of the host for nourishment
- Granivores
- Herbivores which eat an entire organism, similar to predators
- Grazers
- Herbivores which eat grasses.
- Browsers
- Herbivores which eat the leaves of plants
- Mutualism
- A type of symbiosis in which both species benefit
- Commensalism
- A type of symbiosis in which one species benefits and the other is not affected at all
- Parasitism
- A type of symbiosis in which one species benefits and the other is harmed
- Coevolution
- The evolution of one species in response to evolution in another
- Secondary Compounds
- Toxic chemicals produced in plants which discourage herbivores
- Cyrptic Coloration
- Camoflage which allows an organism to blend in with its surroundings.
- Aposematic Coloration
- Patterns or colors which warn predators that an organism should be avoided
- Mullerian Mimicry
- When several animals with the same defense mechanism share the same aposematic coloration, so that it is easier for predators to learn.
- Batesian Mimicry
- When an animal with no defense mechanism mimics the coloration or pattern of one woh does
- Ecological Succession
- The change in how the populations which make up a community change in composition over time, eventually resulting in a climax community
- Climax Community
- The final state in ecological succession
- Pioneer Species
- The first species to colonize a new habitat; usually r-selected species
- Primary Succession
- Succession on habitats which originally had not supported life
- Secondary Succession
- Succession originating in a habitat whose communities were destroyed by an event
- Trophic Levels
- The main energy source of an organism
- Primary Producers
- Autotrophs which convert the suns energy into chemical energy; includes plants, photosynthetic protists, cyanobacteria, and chemosynthetic bacteria. They are eaten by primary conusmers
- Detritivores
- Consumers which obtain their energy from dead plants and animals. The smallest are called decomposers
- Ecological Efficiency
- The amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next, usually around 10%
- Hydrologic Cycle
- The water cycle: kept in oceans, air, groundwater, and glaciers; plants absorb water and animals drink water or eat other organisms; plants transpire and animals decompose
- Carbon Cycle
- kept in the atmosphere, fossil fuels, peat, and organic matter; plants use carbon dioxide, animals consume plants or other animals; when organic matter is burned or organisms release carbon dioxide
- Nitrogen Cycle
- kept in the atmosphere and soil; plants abosrb nitrogen, animals eat plants or other animals, baceteria concert nitrate to nitrogen, animals excete ammonia
- Nitrogen Fixation
- Nitrogen converted to ammonia by prokaryotes; nitrogen converted to nitrate by lightning and UV radiation
- Nitrification
- Ammonium converted to nitrite and nitrite converted to nitrate by various bacteria
- Phosphorus Cycle
- kept in rocks, plants absorb phosphate from soil; animals eat plants or other animals; released in decomposition or animal waste
- Biomes
- Regions of the biosphere that exhibit common environmental characteristics
- Tropical Rain Forests
- High temperature and rainfall. Canopy of tall trees. Many vines and epiphytes.
- Epiphytes
- Plants which live on other plants commensally
- Savannas
- Grasslands with a few scattered trees. High temperatures but less water than rain forests
- Temperate Grasslands
- Less rainfall and lower temperatures than savannas
- Temperate Deciduous Forests
- Warm summers, cold winters, moderate precipitation
- Deserts
- Hot, dry; plants only grow in short periods following rainfall; animals have thick skin, and conserve water
- Taigas
- Coniferous forests; cold winters; more snow than rain
- Tundras
- Very cold winters; permafrost remains frozen throughout the year
- Epithelial Tissue
- Animal tissue which includes outer skin lahyers and internal protective coverings
- Connective Tissue
- Animal tissue including bone, cartilage, and blood
- Homeostasis
- The maitenance of stable internal conditions
- Negative Feedback
- The way in which animals maintain homeostatis, with a receptor detecting when conditions are unfavorable, an integrator evaluates the change and activates an effector to correct it.
- Integrator
- A control center which evaluates changes from homeostasis detected by receptors and actives an effector.
- Effector
- A mechanism which corrects changes from homeostasis
- Ectotherms
- Animals which obtain body heat from their environment, also called poikilotherms, include most invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and fish
- Poikilotherms
- Cold blooded animals, also called ectotherms
- Endotherms
- Animals which generate their own heat
- Homoeotherms
- Warm blooded animals, also called endotherms
- Methods of Thermoregulation
- Cooling by evaporation, warming by metabolism, adjusting surface area
- Respiration
- The movement of gases into and out of an organism
- Methods of Respiration
- Direct contact with the environment, gills, tracheae, and lungs
- Gills
- Outgrowths from the body which create a large surface area on which gas exchange can occur
- Operculum
- The cover for gills
- Tracheae
- Chitin-lined tubes in which respiration occurs
- Spiracles
- Openings in which oxygen enters tracheae and carbon dioxide exits
- Epiglottis
- A flap covering the human trachea
- Bronchi
- Tubes which enter the lungs, branching out from the trachea
- Bronchioles
- Narrower tubes which branch out from the bronchi
- Alveolus
- A small sac at the end of each bronciole, oxygen diffused from here into the blood stream
- Diaphragm
- A muslce under the lungs which increases the volume of the lungs by contracting
- Intercostal Muscles
- Muscles between the ribs, which contract to expand the lungs
- Open Circulatory System
- Blood is pumped into a cavity called a hemocoel, where it is bathed in a nutrient rich fluid called hemolymph.
- Hemolymph
- Nutrient carrying fluid which bathes blood in open circulatory systems
- Hemocoel
- A cavity in open circulatory systems where blood is bathed in nutrient and oxygen rich hemolymph
- Ostia
- Holes which allow hemolymph to return to the heart
- Closed Circulatory System
- A system in which blood is confined to the heart and vessels
- Arteries
- Blood vessels moving away from the heart in a closed circulatory system
- Arterioles
- Smaller vessels which the arteries branch into
- Capillaries
- The smallest of arteries; gas and nutrients are diffused from the capillaries to other cells
- Veins
- Blood vessels returning to the heart with deoxygenated blood
- Venules
- Smaller blood vessels, which merge into veins
- Pulmonary Circuit
- Path through the heart: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle
- Erthrocytes
- Red blood cells
- Leukocytes
- White blood cells
- Platelets
- Cell fragments which aid in blood clotting
- Plasma
- The liquid portion of blood
- Primary Sex Characteristics
- Structures in males or females directly involved in reproduction
- Secondary Sex Characteristics
- Structures such as body hair which are a result of gender but not directly involved with reproduction
- Ovary
- The organ where ova, or eggs, are produced
- Oviduct
- Also called the Fallopian Tube, transfers eggs from the ovary to the uterus
- Uterus
- The site for embryonic development
- Endometrium
- The inside wall of the uterus
- Vagina
- The pathway from the uterus out of the body
- Cervix
- An opening from the uterus to the vagina.
- Seminferous Tubules
- The sites for the production of sperm
- Interstitual Cells
- Produce male sex hormones
- Epididymis
- A coiled tube which acts as the site for final maturation and storage of sperm
- Vas deferens
- Transfers sperm from the epididymis to the urethra
- Seminal Vesicles
- Secrete mucus, fructose, and prostaglandins into the sperm during ejaculation
- Prostate gland
- Secretes a fluid into the urethra which neutralizes the acidity of any lingering urine
- Acrosome
- A lysosome at the tip of the sperm head with enzymes used to penetrate the egg
- Midpiece (of sperm)
- The first part of the flagellum, which contains mitochondria which supply ATP for flagellar movement
- Gametogenesis
- The meiotic cell divisions which result in gametes
- Oogenesis
- The development of ova, which begins during embryonic development, but is halted until puberty is reached. While two gametes are created, only one develops into an egg.
- Oogonia
- Fetal cells which divide to produce primary oocytes during oogenesis
- Secondary Oocyte
- The oocyte which develops into an egg
- Polar Body
- The oocyte which recieves little cytoplasm and eventually dies
- Follicle
- An envelope of cells surrounding a developing oocyte
- Spermatogensis
- The creation of sperm through meiosis; begins at puberty
- Spermatids
- The four gametes which result from spermatogenesis and mature into sperm
- Menstrual Cycle
- The thicking of the endometrium of the uterus in preparation for implantation of an fertilized egg and the shedding of the endometrium if implanatation
- Ovarian Cycle
- Development of the egg, release of it, and secretion of estrogen and progesterone from the corpus luteum after ovulation
- Androgens
- Male sex hormones
- Fetus
- An embryo which resembles the infant form of an animal
- Fertilization
- When a sperm penetrates the plasma membrane of a secondary oocyte
- Recognition (fertilization)
- During fertilization, the sperm secretes a protein which binds to specific receptor molecules on the secondary oocyte, ensuring that fertilization only occurs between members of the same species
- Cleavage Divisions
- After fertilization, the newly formed zygote undergoes many rapid cell divisions without increasing in size
- Blastomeres
- Cells that result from cleavage division, each generation contains less cytoplasm than the former
- Morula
- A solid ball of blasomeres that results from many cleavage division
- Blastula
- A hollow sphere of cells which results from liquid filling the inside of a morula
- Blastocoel
- The liquid cavity of a blastula
- Gastrula
- A two layered embryo that results from cells moving into the blastocoel of a blastula during embryonic development