Educational Psychology 2
Terms
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- correlational study
- explores possible relationships among different things (variables); the extent to which two characteristics tend to be found together or change together; allows us to make predictions about one variable if we know the status of the other
- descriptive study
- describes a situation; some are primarily quantitative, while others are qualitative; allows us to draw conclusions about the current state of affairs
- experimental study
- a study in which the researcher somehow changes or manipulates one or more aspects of the environment (independent variable) and then measures the effect on something else (dependent variable); enables us to draw conclusions about causation
- variable
- may be independent or dependent
- competing explanations for results in an experimental study use of educational research
- to draw conclusions about causal relationships, we must eliminate other possible explanations
- 1st general principle of developmental theory
- Development proceeds in a somewhat orderly and predictable pattern; developmental milestones that occur in predictable sequence
- 2nd general principle of developmental theory
- Different children develop at different rates; allows us to form general expectations about the capabilities of children at a particular age level
- 3rd general principle of developmental theory
- Periods of relatively rapid growth may appear between periods of slower growth (plateaus); development does not always proceed at a constant rate
- 4th general principle of developmental theory
- Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and nurture (environment); heredity continues to control a child's growth through the process of maturation, an unfolding of genetically controlled changes as the child develops
- temperament
- genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one's physical and social environments
- Piaget's essentials for cognitive development
- interaction with one's physical and social environments
- scheme
- an organized group of similar actions or thoughts; initially, they are largely behavioral, but over time become increasingly mental and abstract
- example of assimilation
- dealing with an object or event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme; a "putting things in the mouth" scheme
- example of accommodation
- dealing with a new event by either modifying an existing scheme or forming a new one; a 7-yr-old that realizes a salamander cannot be a snake because it has 4 legs
- Piaget's 4 periods of development
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1. Sensorimotor stage (birth until 2 years)
2. Preoperational stage (2 years until 6 or 7 years
3. Concrete operations (6 or 7 years until 11 or 12 years)
4. Formal operations (11 or 12 years through adulthood) - Sensorimotor stage
- Children focus on what they are doing and seeing at the moment, and so their schemes are based primarily on behaviors and perceptions; symbolic thought emerges at the end of the 2nd year
- Preoperational stage
- Children can think about objects beyond their immediate view, but do not yet reason in logical, adultlike ways; preoperational egocentrism; lack of conservation, irreversibility; inability to reason about transformations; single classification; transductive reasoning (2 events that occur close together have cause-effect relationship
- Concrete operational stage
- Adultlike logic appears, but is limited to concrete reality; deductive reasoning (drawing logical inferences about something that must be true); dependence on concrete reality; inability to formulate and test multiple hypotheses; inability to separate and control variables; lack of proportional reasoning
- Formal operational stage
- Logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas, as well as to concrete reality; ability to reason about abstract, hypothetical and contrary-to-fact ideas; formulation and testing of multiple hypotheses; separation and control of variables; proportional reasoning
- conservation
- realization that if nothing is taken added or taken away, amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or arrangement
- separation and control of variables
- While attempting to confirm or disconfirm a particular hypothesis, students test one variable at a time while holding all other variables constant
- culture and cognitive development
- theoretical perspective emphasizing the importance of society and culture for promoting cognitive development
- example of zone of proximal development
- the range of tasks that children cannot yet perform independently, but can perform with the help and guidance of others; reading complex prose with the help of a teacher
- evidence for language learning being due to innate predisposition
- most languages seem to share certain characteristics, such as similar rules for forming negatives and asking questions; all members of a particular society acquire what is more or less the same language despite widely varying childhood experiences; in some aspects of language development, there appear to be sensitive periods during which children benefit more from exposure to their first language
- semantics
- meanings of words and word combinations
- syntax
- set of rules that one uses (often unconsciously) to put words together in a sentence
- generalization
- meaning attached to a word is either too restricted or too broad
- context
- nonverbal clues about the meaning of what is said
- effective ways to teach English speakers a second language
- total immersion -- students hear and speak the language almost exclusively in the classroom; bilingual education, i.e., students instructed in academic subject areas in native language while simultaneously being taught to read and write in the second language
- authoritative parenting
- parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consitent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decisionmaking
- as students grow older, how they value their achievement in terms of high expectations
- Three factors influence the kinds of self-concepts that students form: previous performance; behavior of others (those who see themselves achieving at higher levels than others are apt to develop more positive self-perceptions); group membership and achievements
- Erickson's theory of psychosocial development
- People's views of themselves and others change significantly not only in childhood and adolescence, but throughout the lifespan
- Erickson's 8 stages of psychosocial development
- 1. trust v. mistrust (infancy); 2. autonomy v. shame (toddler years); 3. initiative v. guilt (preschool years); 4. industry v. inferiority (elementary school years); 5. identity v. role confusion (adolescence); 6. intimacy v. isolation (young adulthood); 7. generativity v. stagnation (middle age); 8. integrity v. despair (retirement years)
- origins of trust, according to Erickson
- during infancy period, major development task is to learn whether or not others, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs of food, comfort and affection
- stage at which children realize they can obtain recognition by producing things
- during elementary school years (industry v. inferiority); provides many opportunities for children to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents, peers by producing things such as drawings, sentences, problem solutions
- critical ages in children's development of self-esteem
- late adolescence; during early adolescence, students' self-concepts and self-esteem often drop from elementary school transition to middle and high schools; positive self-concepts start to development during late adolescence
- imaginary audience
- belief that one is the center of attention in any social setting
- Selman's work regarding stages of perspective taking
- Childhood, early adolescence, late adolescence -- to truly understand and get along with people, students must be able to step into another's shoes, and look at the world from other viewpoints; as children progress through the elementary school grades, they learn to draw more sophisticated inferences about other people's mental states
- Kohlberg's characterization of children's moral development
- development of moral reasoning is characterized by a series of stages; each stage builds upon the foundation of earlier stages, and an individual must progress through all of them: preconventional morality (child has not yet internalized society's conventions concerning right and wrong; conventional morality (acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong); and postconventional morality (behaving in accordance with self-developed, abstract principles regarding right and wrong
- Kohlberg's preconventional level of moral reasoning
- lack of internalized standards about what is right and wrong; making decisions based solely on what is best for oneself
- how to help children develop to postconventional moral reasoning
- advances in moral reasoning depend on cognitive development
- Piaget's theory of cognitive development as influencing Kohlberg's theory of moral development
- individuals move from one stage of moral development to another only after experiencing disequilibrium; they must realize that their existing beliefs cannot adequately address the events and dilemmas they encounter