Life Science Final Review
Terms
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- science
- body of knowledge, unified insights, collection of theories
- theory
- set of principles supported by evidence
- scientific method
-
1)observaion
2)question
3)hypothesis
4)experimentation
5)conclusion - observation
- observe natural world
- hypothesis
- possible explanations (testable and falsifiable)
- deduction
- general -> specific
- induction
- specific -> general
- experimentation
- testing of hypothesis
- naturalistic science
-
-obs. of natural world under natural conditions
-basis of biology
-descriptive, observation - experimental science
- -artifically contrive situations to test hypotheses
- ethics
-
-beliefs of right and wrong
-moral judgements and
justifications - deontological
- -duty-based ethics, based on acts
- utilitarian
- -focus on consequences
- Lamark
-
-1st proposal of change over time
-proposed adaptation and aquired traits - Mendel
- -discovered pattern of inheritance through experiments with breeding plants
- dominant trait
- masks the other trait
- recessive trait
- masked by the other trait
- phenotype
- what is seen
- genotype
- coding (ex. SS, Ss, sS, ss)
- chromosomes
-
-DNA is packaged
-genes control traits
-23 pairs of 2 in humans - diploid
-
-2N
-2 copies of each gene - haploid
-
-N
-1 copy of each gene
-found in human gametes - somatic cell
- body cell
- karyotype
- visiualize chromosomes
- autosomal chromosomes
- everything but sex chromosomes
- sex chromosomes
- x or y
- Klinefelter Syndrome
-
-XXY
-male carrier - Turner Syndrome
-
-XO
-female carrier - Y chromosome
- -its presence determines sex
- SRY protein
-
-gene on Y chromosome
-testes determining factor - double helix
-
-2 stranded backbone
-base pairing of phosphates:
- A&T
- G&C - DNA polymerase
- -enzyme that peels apart and adds new nucleotides
- gene
-
-1 segment of DNA
-directs production of 1 protein - protein
-
-structural component
-bring things through membrane
-cytoskeleton
-packaging DNA - mRNA
-
-molecule that travels between DNA and protein
-nucleic acid
-single-stranded
-U instead of T - transcription
-
-DNA unwound
-polymerase directs prodcution of RNA copy using 1 strand of DNA
-RNA molecule released - mutation
- -change in DNA sequence
- additions/deletions
- -cause frameshifts in DNA sequence
- substitution
-
-1 nucleotide produced instead of the other
-aka pt. mutation - silent mutation
- mutation that makes no difference in DNA sequence
- restriction enzymes
-
-allow DNA to be cut and put back together
-come from bacteria
-cuts DNA at either blunt or sticky ends - genomes
- all DNA in a cell
- comparitive genomics
-
-comparing genomes of different organisms together
-identify important genes
-classification of organisms - functional genomics
- -locate genes and deduce function based on similarities w/ other genes
- DNA fingerprinting
-
-crime investigation
-paternatity tests
-identifying relation - RFLP
- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
- evolution
- process of lasting change over time in biological populations
- adaptation
- organism's change in response to its enviornment, tries to improve chance for survival
- aquired trait
- develop new traits that can be passed down into offspring
- Reverend Paley
- structure so perfectly designed, only be made by designer
- Lyndell
- geological forces operating, earth changing over time
- Cuvier
-
-examined fossils
-proposal of extinction
-several rounds of creation - Darwin
-
-modern theory of evolution
-"Origin of Species" - 1859 - branching descent
- species today derived from ancient species
- natural selection
- parents w/ traits that improve survival and reproduction will have more offspring, skews population to those traits
- mimicry
-
-evidence for Natural Selection
-1 species looks like another to protect itself
-ex. coral snake/king snake; viceroy/monarch - industrial melanism
-
-pollution caused by industry change environment and organisms change in response
-ex. pepper moths on trees - disease resistance
-
-evidence of natural selection
-ex. sickle cell anemia = resistance to malaria - homologies
-
-evidence for branching descent
-similarity implying shared ancestors
-anatomical/genetic - vestigal structures
-
-found in an organism, don't seem to have a function
-ex. eyes in fish that live in dark, human tailbone - convergance
-
-evidence for branching descent
-similar structures that have developed independantly in unrelated structures because of pressures of enviornment - fossil record
-
-evidence of branching descent
-progression from simple to complex organisms - genetic drift
- sudden decrease in population and randomly some alleles more represented in survivors
- speciation
-
-production of new species
-barrier in reproduction (ie geographic barrier, different mating seasons)
-fertile offspring never produced (ie sperm never enters egg, chromosomes don't match up) - species
- population of inter-breeding organisms that are reproductively isolated
- Bible-based creationism
-
-literal interpretation of Genesis 1&2
-6 24 hour days
-anti-science (many are) - Intelligent Design creationism
-
-irreducible complexity (system will only function if all parts are present and functioning)
-can't evolve in Darwin's piece-like way b/c all of the parts are needed all of the time
-can't be tested/falsified - Theistic Evolution
-
-not literal interpretation of Genesis 1&2 - story to convey basic truths
-evolution is process God chose to use - microevolution
- -could explain small variation between species
- macroevolution
- -major jumps (ie monkey to man, etc.)
- systematics
-
-comparative biology
-determining relatedness of organisms
-identify similarities
-group organisms
-naming system - taxonomy
-
-naming/classifying organisms
-similarities/differences - morphology
- -identification based on shape/appearance
- embryology
- -identification based on development
- classical method of deducing evolutionary relationships
- -look at evidence, make phylogenetic tree
- cladistics
-
-determines branching system
-construct cladogram
-look at derived traits in living organisms
-will share ancestoral traits - procaryotes
-
-like bacteria
-unicellular
-small
-plasma membrane and cell wall
-no internal membrane
-asexual reproduction
-plasmids - eucaryotes
-
-everything not procaryote
-unicellular or multicellular
-large
-cytoskeleton
-internal and external membranes
-organelles
-sometimes have cell wall
-sexual or asexual
-thought to evolve from procaryote - plasmid
- small, circular piece of DNA
- cytoskeleton
- shape, movement, organizes organelles
- organelle
-
-mitochondria, golgi apparatus, etc.
-internal membranes - Kingdom Archaea
-
-procaryotic, unicellular
-organisms all live in extreme enviornments - Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Protista
-
-multicellular
-asexual
-photosynthetic
-ingest other organisms
-some non-motile, some sillia, some psuedopods, some flagella - Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Plantae
-
-usually multicellular
-photosynthetic
-non-motile
-have cell wall
-3 types: alge, bryophytes, vascular plants
-sexually reproduce - alge
-
-aquatic
-photosynthetic
-no vascular system
-some cellular specialization - bryophytes
-
-mosses, etc.
-moist enviornment
-no vascular system
-gametes must be carried by water
-low to the ground
-all cells are photosynthetic - vascular plants
-
-have vascular system/can transport water/nutrients
-taller
-cellular specialization - Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Mycota
-
-fungus
-unicellular or multicellular
-produce spores
-asexual/sexual reproduction
-ability to secrete digestive enzymes and absorb smaller nutrients into cells
-mostly non-motile
-cell wall
-some parasitic - Domain Eukarya/Kingdom Animalia
-
-very diverse
-multicelluar
-sexual reproduction
-nutrition through ingestion
-general derived characteristics - distinct germ layers
-
-specialization of cells at embryotic stage
-ectoderm (nervous tissue, skin)
-endoderm (intestinal tract, apendages of intestinal)
-mesoderm (muscle and bone) - symmetry
-
-radial symmetry - symmetry around a central point
-asymmetry - no symmetry
-bilateral symmetry - symmetry across middle - body cavity
-
-room for expandable organs
-protection for internal organs
-psuedocoelom, coelom, none - psuedocoelom
-
-semi-body cavity
-not covered by mesoderm on all sides - coelom
- -mesoderm on all sides of body cavity
- where mouth develops
- -protostomes/deuterostomes
- protostome
-
-mouth 1st
-where cells start to move inward becomes mouth - deuterostome
-
-secondary mouth
-wherre cells start to move inward becomes anus
-humans - segmentation
- -important for movement and development
- porifera
-
-phyla
-sponges
-no derived traits - cnidaria
-
-phyla
-hydra, jellyfish, etc.
-derived traits: -radial symmetry
- 2 germ layers (ecto/endo)
-polyp/medusa - platyhelminthes
-
- phyla
-flat worms, tapeworms, etc.
-derived traits: -3 germ layers
-tissue specialization
-specific reproductive tissue
-bilateral symmetry - nematoda
-
-round worms
-derived traits: all above +
-true body cavity
-protostome - annelida
-
-earthworm
-derived traits: all above +
-segmentation - chordata
-
-3 subphyla:
-lancet
-tunicate
-vertabrata - subphyla vertabrata
-
-body cavity
-deuterostome
-notocord
-gill slits - order:primates
-
-large, front-facing eyes
-binocular vision
-limbs with opposable thumbs - family: hominidae
-
-humans, all extinct hominids
-bipedalism (walk on 2 feet) - hominid
-
-lost wrist ridges/locking elbows
-develped spongey substance in leg
-forward facing toes
-parallel feet - genus: ardipithecus
-
-oldest, chimp traits
-4.5 mill. years ago - genus: australopitheus
-
-Lucy
-2.5-4.5 mill. years ago - genus: homo
-
-homoergaster - 1.5 mill. years ago, close to humans
-homo erectus - 50,000 yrs. ago
-homo sapien - our moders species - multi-regional theory
-
-everything since homo ergaster is part of homo sapien
-slow blending of all regions together - replacement theory
-
-homo sapiens coming to be in Africa
-migrate and out compete every other genus - population
- -individuals in 1 geographical area that interbreed
- Hardy-Weinberg equation
- -used to deduce allelic frequencies from phenotypic frequencies
- equilibrium
- population where frequency of alleles is consistant over time
- innate behavior
-
-genetically encoded
-directly influenced by natural selection
-ex. escape response, threat response, mating rituals - annual internal clock
-
-seasonal changes
-migration, mating, hibernation - daily internal clock
-
-circadian rhythm
-foraging, sleep - learned behavior
-
-not genetically encoded
-not directly influenced by natural selection
-aquired through experience after birth
-ex. how to read, speaking, using tools - asexual reproduction
-
-benefits: passing on 100% of genetic makeup, don't have to find mate
-costs: if enviornment changes, no hope of change/mutation - sexual reproduction
-
-benefits: offspring better adapted than parents, parental investment higher
-costs: expend more energy, only pass on 50% of genetic makeup - monogamy
-
-strong parental investment
-mate for life - polygyny
-
-single male w/ many femals
-competition w/in males - polyandry
-
-1 female with many males
-very rare - promiscuity
- -everyone mates w/ everyone
- k-selection
-
-population determined by carrying capacity
-stable
-favorable/unchanging enviornment
-long-lived
-parental investment high - r-selection
-
-population determined by reproduction
-unstable
-low parental investment
-short-lived - follicle stimulation hormone
-
-secreted by pituitary gland
-starts development of follicles
-peaks at ovulation - lutenizing hormone
-
-secreted by pituitary gland
-peaks at ovulation - estrogen
-
-secreted by ovaries
-peaks at ovulation - progesterone
-
-secreted by corpus luteum
-maintains thickness of endometrium - birth control
-
-more ovarian hormones
-prevents production of pituitary hormones - zygote
- fertilized egg
- blastocyst
- sphere with mass of cells in middle
- macronutrients
-
-carbohydrates
-lipids
-proteins - carbohydrates
-
-sugars
-give us energy - lipids
-
-water insoluable
-long chains of carbon bonds
-tryiglycerides/cholesterol
-energy use/storage
-carry other fat-soluable molecules into body - triglycerides
- -saturated v. non-saturated determined by how many double bonds
- cholesterol
-
-non-polar
-high content in animal fats - phospholipids
-
-non-polar fatty acid tails
-polar head
-in water - tails go away from water, heads go towards - micronutrients
-
-vitamins
-minerals - vitamins
-
-complex nutrients only needed in small quantities
-structural components
-anti-oxidants - prevent unneccesary oxidation - minerals
-
-organic ion/metal
-structural components
-used in hemoglobin
-store energy
-water retention - ion
-
-charged atom
-ex. sodium, potassium, calcium - metal
- ex. iron, zinc
- motility
-
-process of digestive system
-direction to tract
-ex. swallowing - secretion
-
-process of digestive system
-adding things to digestive tract
-mucus, digestive enzymes, bile, bilirubin - digestion
-
-process of digestive system
-breaking down larger molecules into smaller
-mechanical/chemical - chemical digestion
- -directed by enzymes
- absorbtion
-
-process of digestive system
-movement of molecules from inside intestines into cells
-absorb nutrients/other secretions - diffusion
-
-molecules move from high concentration to low concentration
-no energy required
-cross bilipid layer (anything fat-soluable)
-or channel (protein in cell membrane)
-or carrier (protein in cell membrane, like channel but w/ binding site inside) - active transport
-
-low concentration to high
-requires energy
-uses a carrier w/ energy - endocytosis
-
-membrane invaginates and then pinches off, creating a vesicle
-encloses molecules and then carries them into cell - blood
- -plasma and cells (ie hemoglobin, immune cells) and platelets
- blood vessels
- -arteries, veins, capillaries
- ateries
- -carry blood away from heart
- vein
- -carry blood towards heart
- capillaries
-
-very small
-very thin wall for maximum diffusion - heart
-
-cardiac muscle
-4-chambered - homeostasis
-
-keeping things at steady rate
-gluclose level in blood is highly regulated by insulin and glucogon - insulin
- -when glucose levels are too high, it causes glucose to be taken into cells
- glucogon
- -when glucose levels are too low, it causes the liver to release glucose stores
- autotropes
- -make own food
- photosynthesis
-
-using energy in light to make carbs
-light reactions and dark reactions
-both happen in chloroplasts - light reactions
-
-light and H2O in
-energy (ATP, NADPH) is produced
-O2 is released - dark reactions
-
-ATP, NADPH fed in
-glucose and CO2 are produced through Calvin Cycle - dermal tissue
- -cuticle, trichome, and stomata
- cuticle
-
-waxy covering on surface of plant
-keeps invaders out
-prevents water from evaporating - trichome
-
-stalk-like extensions from surface
-can be used for absorbtion, secretion - stomata
-
-small holes mostly on surface of leaves
-main location for gas exchange
-opening/closing can be regulated by guard cells - vascular tissue
- -xylem/phloem
- xylem
-
-H2O moved up plant
-made of dead cells
-water moved by suction - phloem
-
-nutrients moved up and down
-live cells
-water moved by osmosis - osmosis
-
-movement of water into regions of high solute concentration
-glucose is actively pumped across membrane, water follows it - fertilizers
-
-supply plants with needed nutrients
-natural (manure, composting, etc.)
-chemical (nitrate,etc.)
risks: surrounding eviornment unintentionally overly nutrient enriched - irrigation
- -water is limiting nutrient, so maximize H2O supply
- cancer
- -cells w/ genetic mutations that collectively cause them to grow in an uncontrollable manner indefinately
- properties of cancer cells
-
-divide uncontrollably
-fail to communicate appropriately with other cells
-move inappropriately or aggressively throughout body
-change gene expression
-refuse to die - malignant tumor
- -aggressive - moves into and invades other tissue, can travel in blood stream
- benign tumor
- -cannot move
- oncogene
-
-mutated gene
-when mutated promote cell growth/division - tumor-suppresor genes
- -when mutated lose function (inhibit cell growth)
- risk factors of cancer
-
-age
-inherited predisposition
-virus
-radiation
-chemical carciongens
-diet - age
-
-risk factor of cancer
-accumlation of mutations over time
-DNA repair mechanisms get worn out - inherited predisposition
-
-risk factor of cancer
-inherit 1 copy of mutated gene
-inherit defect in DNA repair mechanism - virus
-
-risk factor of cancer
-carry mutated oncogene
-20% cancers worldwide - radiation
-
-risk factor of cancer
-UV rays - skin cancer
-ionizing - x-rays, atomic bomb, etc. - chemical carcinogens
-
-risk factor of cancer
-causes mutations
-ex. tobacco, industrial waste, etc. - diet
-
-risk factor of cancer
-30% cancers worldwide
-low in fat, high in fiber, high in antioxidants = good diet