USAP Chapters 1 - 6, 25 - 29
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- Land bridge/migration
- Siberian nomads migrate across a land bridge connecting NE Asia w/Alaska, eventually reached tip of S. America and Eastern N. America
- Agricultural Revolution (prehistory)
- Beginning of domesticated plants, settled village life, social complexity
- Mound Builders
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Mississippi/Ohio Valleys: built ceremonial mounds, declined before arrival of Europeans b/c of attacks from other tribes
"First American metropolis" - Eastern Woodland Cultures
- Atlantic coastal plain: waterside villages, traveled/communicated via canoes
- World Views of Native Americans and Europeans
- Europeans in the colonies saw themselves as 'civilized' and natives as 'savage'
- Native American society/religion
- Families determined by females (contrast to European patriarchal society), less structured religion: spiritual power existed everywhere in nature
- African Kingdoms
- Farming skills --> increased agriculture --> increased population
- 2/3 of immigrants to the "New World"
- Africans represented 2/3 of the immigrant population before 1750 to the New World
- African Society
- Matrilineal family, believed in supreme creator of the cosmos + lesser deities of natural forces, worshipped ancestors, social organization: nobility/priests, commoners, slaves (not permanent, not inherited by kids)
- Black Death
- 1348-1349, killed 1/2 of European population, promoted unification of old nations into early states
- Magna Carta
- 1215 - created checks and balances in political systems between King and Parliament
- Impact of Monarchies/Renaissance on Exploration
- Monarchies funded explorations, Renaissance peaked in the Age of Exploration
- Initial aims of explores
- Find sea route to Asia, tap African gold trade at its source
- Marco Polo
- 1291 - returned to Venice with treasures from the Orient, introduced Europe to Asian goods
- Prince Henry the Navigator
- Dispatched Portuguese mariners to explore Atlantic Ocean
- Portuguese sailing advancements
- 1450s - Invention of quadrant to measure star altitude, new ship designs
- Ferdinand and Isabella
- Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella --> Spanish golden age (united independent states)
- Christopher Columbus
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Unsuccessful explorations, eventually commissioned by Queen Isabella 1492
1st voyage: San Salvador, believed he had reached Asia
2nd voyage: first extended European/Native American contact - captured natives and brought them back --> beginning of Atlantic slave trade - Martin Luther
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Initiated Protestant Reformation of theology
"Salvation comes through inward faith"
Denounced Catholicism (sale of indulgences, etc.), Roman authority - Reformation
- Movement to cleanse Christians of corruption, struggle b/n Catholicism and Protestantism
- John Calvin
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Published appeal to Christians to form a personal relationship with God
Predestination (God saved a few souls at random during creation) - all Christians must believe they were saved
Calvinism - 1550s, Geneva: model Christian community - Treaty of Tordesillas
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1494 - Portugal gains territory in S. America by moving Portuguese/Spanish boundary westward, to settle land dispute
Found out later: Portuguese got Brazilian "lump" - Hernando Cortes (Spanish)
- 1519 - Left from Spain with army and attacked Tenochtitlan (capital of Aztecs), victorious
- Montezuma
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King of Aztecs
Oppressed many natives, overthrown by Cortes - Columbian Exchange
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Europe/Africa/Asia --> Americas:
DISEASES, sugar cane, fruit, livestock, etc.
Americas --> Europe/Africa/Asia:
Starch, crops, fowl, etc. - The Great Dying
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Europeans bring lethal diseases to Americas with them --> kill millions of Native Americans
Repeated in all areas of European intrusion
Intensified by slavery/brutal treatment of natives - Bartolome de Las Casas
- Priest, worked to protect Indians from exploitation (enslavement, brutal treatment)
- Impact of precious metals on Europe
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Spanish Empire in Americas became a mining community; natives/African slaves become first labor supply
Silver circulation --> "price revolution" (prices rise, redistribution of wealth in favor of farmers) - Spanish Armada
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Dispatched 1588 by Philip in response to Elizabeth's English help of Dutch Protestants (130 ships)
2 week sea battle off English shore --> English victory --> prevented Catholic dominance, temporarily stopped religious wars - Richard Hakluyts
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Advertised America's advantages:
new estates, exotic produce, free land, etc.
"Time is ripe for England to break into New World colonization" - England's rehearsal in Ireland
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England tried to colonize Ireland first instead of New World.
Used brutal military conquest to gain control of the land. - Walter Raleigh and Roanoke
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1585-1588 - Raleigh leads settlement at Roanoke Island off North Carolina coast
One of 1st English New World settlements
Died in attacks by local tribes, colony failed - Jamestown
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1607 - Established as England's 1st North American permanent colony at Jamestown, VA
Originally to bring Christianity to natives
Wanted to find gold, trade with natives - most died and could not conquer the natives - Joint-Stock Company
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Company sells shares of stock and uses the revenue to support the company
(i.e. Jamestown) - The Virginia Company
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Joint-Stock Company
To bring Christianity to natives
Controlled the colony by sending merchants over to obtain occupational diversity - John Smith
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Leader of Jamestown
Raided Indian corn supplies, tried to intimidate local tribes
Eventually soured native relations - Tobacco
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Discovery of tobacco growing in Chesapeake
Smoking --> "Virginia's salvation"
Required big labor supply (many aspects of care needed) - Indentured Servants
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Sold a portion of their working life for free Atlantic passage
Most died of disease, brutal work routine - Headright System
- People given 50 acres of land for each person brought with them on the trip
- House of Burgesses
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Established 1619 as elected legislative body of Virginia
Began lawmaking w/Royal Governor and its council - George Calvert
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English nobleman, designs Chesapeake's neighbor: Maryland
Planned as a safe haven for Catholic minority
Overtaken quickly by Protestants
Calvert tried to establish feudalism, failed - The Pilgrims
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1620 - Pilgrims: 1st New England permanent settlement
Wanted to realize their own pure life
Harsh Cape Cod weather killed 1/2 of them - William Bradford
- Leader of Pilgrims at their settlement of Plymouth
- John Winthrop
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Leader of Puritans, member of English upper class
Established communities to work for God - City on a Hill
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Winthrop: "we shall be as a city upon a hill"
Puritans: examples of mission to shape an American image in future generations - Roger Williams
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Denounced Puritans: couldn't separate themselves from English church, intruding on Indian land
Fled with some followers to found Rhode Island - Anne Hutchinson
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Accused "holy spirit" of being absent in some ministers
Put on trial by clergy --> convicted, banished, excommunicated
Followed Williams to RI - Quakers
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Founded society in Pennsylvania
Thought English church to be corrupt
"Everyone can find grace through inward light"
Heavily persecuted, deported - William Penn
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Leader of Quakers
Drafted constitution, established PA as a safe haven for persecuted
Others arrive and persecute each other - King Philip's War
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King Philip (native leader) forced to sign treaty putting natives under English law
Natives attack CT River Valley
Food shortage, disease --> native loss
New Englanders killed, Puritans weakened, English debt!! - Bacon's Rebellion
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Nathaniel Bacon (planter) unhappy w/VA gov't's lack of protection from natives
Bacon attacks natives
Governor Berkeley sends military to attack him --> civil war
Bacon captures, destroys Jamestown
VA Assembly turns on Berkeley, makes enslavement of natives legal
Berkeley hangs 23 followers of Bacon
Led to general hatred of natives in white society - Navigation Act of 1651
- Only English or colonial ships manned by English/colonial sailors could carry goods entering England/Ireland/colonies
- Navigation Act of 1660
- Colonial products (i.e. tobacco, sugar) can be shipped only to England or other colonies
- The Glorious Revolution
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James II (Catholic) becomes King of England
Protestants invite William of Orange to take over, James II steps down
Effects:
New England: New England Gov. Sir Edmund Andros removed and imprisoned
NY: Jacob Leisler establishes interim gov't, imprisoned w/arrival of real gov't for establishing gov't w/o royal instruction
MA: Interim gov't takes over, Bostonians begin idea of rejection of authority
MD: Protestant association forms, takes over Catholic gov't
VA: Attempted overthrow of Catholic gov't, Protestant Gov. removes Catholics from authority positions - Louis Jolliet, Jacques Marquette
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1670s - Explorers representing New France
1st Europeans to discover Great Lakes region and Mississippi Valley - Rene Robert de La Salle
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New French explorer: canoed down MS River to Gulf of Mexico, planted a settlement in Texas
Connected Canada and Louisiana by a chain of forts/trading posts - New England/New France War
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Religious conflict
Armed conflict in Europe/N. America b/c natives allow French settlement, not English
English capture French center - Treaty of Utrecht
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1713 - Ended New England/New France war (English victory)
England gets lots of territory, France loses a lot
Beginning of downfall of Spanish control - German-speaking Settlers
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Mostly Protestant farmers fleeing German famine and war
Looking for cheap land, low taxes, military exemption
Settled b/n NY and SC, most in PA --> Mid-Atlantic becomes primarily German-speaking - Fur Trade
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Altered Native American belief that heaven/animal destinies closely linked
Trappers and hunters capture animals to supply the trade, begin ignoring these beliefs
Fur traders (different nationalities) compete for client tribes - Cotton Mather
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New England's most prominent Puritan clergyman
Concluded that God was angry with the clergy b/c the people had a declining faith in God - Eliza Pinckney
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Wife of a wealthy SC planter
Experimented with cultivation of indigo
Indigo --> staple crop in 1740s, soon ranked among leading colonial exports - The Anglican Church in America
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Not as religious as in England
Community gatherings - The Backcountry
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Pennsylvania - Georgia
German and Scots-Irish settlers create small farm-based society
Small marketing towns emerge --> social life - Atlantic Basin Trading System
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American economy eventually involved in trading network w/Great Britain, W. Europe, Africa, W. Indies, Newfoundland
British followed rules of mercantilism - Mercantilism
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A country should strive to gain wealth by:
-Increasing exports
-Regulating production/trade
-Exploiting colonies to own advantage - The Enlightenment
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European ideas about economy, universe, nature, human condition reach the colonies
American cities spread these ideas in American of European enlightenment
European thinkers: God gave humans gift of reason
Americans: God gave humans capacity to get knowledge - John Locke
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Argued: God did not predetermine content of the human mind, but gave it capacity to acquire knowledge
Enlightenment thinker - Benjamin Franklin
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Enlightenment thinker
Earned international reputation for scientific discoveries
Practical application of scientific knowledge - The Great Awakening
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18th century America still mostly Protestant, but many didn't go to church
Religious revival begins in NJ, PA
Especially swept Puritans, small VA planters
Promoted equality through religious revival
Effects:
-Promoted religious pluralism
-Separation of church and state
-Diversity of community: unpreventable
-Change in values mixed into politics/daily life - The Half-Way Covenant
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Adapted by clergy to attract church membership
-Children of church members can join without converting
Brought in many children, their children, etc. - Jonathan Edwards
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Warned congregation of sins and angry God
Made people convert to be "born again" - George Whitefield
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Argued: the current clergy are too intellectual/traditional to bring faith to this generation
Individuals must be responsible for their own conversion - Bicameral Legislature
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2-part gov'ts, common in colonies
Lower houses: represent people at large assemblies
Higher houses: represent aristocracy at councils
All laws approved by Governor and King - Growing Power of Assemblies
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Royal Governors controlled elected legislature more than the King controlled Parliament
Rise of royal gov'ts in colonies --> legislatures challenge gov'ts b/c some governors incompetent
Legislatures gradually become governing bodies reflecting needs of people - Town Meeting
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Staple of Northern politics
General agreement of whole assembly - consensus - Whig Ideology
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aka Republicanism, inherited from English
Main ideas:
-Concentrated power = enemy of liberty
-Too much power in a person or group --> corruption/tyranny
Defenses against concentrated power:
-Balanced gov't
-Elected legislatures
-Prohibition of standing armies
-Vigilance by people for signs of corruption in leaders - Molasses Act
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1733 - Parliament adds to the list of items produced in the colonies that must be exported to England
Wanted to stop trade b/n New England and French W. Indies
Imposes tax on all molasses imported from West Indies
Many New Englanders --> smuggling, black market (defying royal authority!) - Ohio Valley
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English colonial population growth --> tension b/n English and French colonists
1740s - Many move to Appalachians and beyond (Ohio Valley)
French try to block further English expansion by building forts in OH Valley, eventually drive English out by 1755 - Soviet Union - Foreign Policy in 1930s
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FDR recognizes Soviet gov't
Soviets agree to pay WWI debts to US, give rights to US citizens in USSR
This led to communication b/n US and USSR - Good Neighbor Policy
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1934 - FDR removes US forces from Haiti/Nicaragua
Pledge: no country in this hemisphere will intervene w/any other - Trade Agreements Act of 1934
- President can lower tariffs up to 50%
- Cuba - Foreign Policy in the 1930s
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Cuban Revolution --> lots of $ in US investments threatened
FDR sends envoys to make an agreement w/revolutionary gov't
Fulgencio Batista's coup overthrows revolutionary gov't
FDR:
- Recognizes Batista gov't
- Offers $ loan
- Removes Platt Amendment (Cuba no longer a US protectorate)
- Asks for the rights to a naval base - Hitler's rise to power/his ideas
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Blamed Germany's WWI loss on Communists/Jews
Became leader of Nat'l Socialist Party of German Workers
1933 - becomes chancellor of Germany
Reichstag suspends constitution --> Hitler becomes Fuhrer and dictator
Fascist regime (political/economic power in a concentrated state)
Wanted to conquer Europe --> 1934 - announces Germany's rearmament, violating Treaty of Versailles - The Nye Hearings
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Sen. Gerald P. Nye (ND) - investigated connection b/n corporate profits and US participation in WWI
Found that lots of US businessmen were working w/War Dept.: businesses making war materials had made lots of $
It could be that US was tricked into going to war by these businesses - Young people and the peace movement (pre-WWII)
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Student anti-WWII demonstrations on college campuses
Some student organizations formed
Veterans of Future Wars
Future Gold Star Mothers - Ethiopia and Italy (pre-WWII)
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May 1935 - Italy invades Ethiopia
Italy quickly wins (better technology)
Congress scared --> passes Neutrality Act of 1935 (President can stop arms shipments to nations at war and advise US citizens against traveling on belligerents' ships)
FDR imposes arms embargo
Italy called the war's aggressor - General Francisco Franco
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1936 - Spanish civil war: Franco revolts vs. republican gov't
Germany/Italy send weapons to Franco, USSR supports Spanish republicans
US split:
Catholics, anti-Communists support Franco
Radicals support Loyalists (republicans)
Many Americans join Abraham Lincoln Brigade, go to Spain to fight fascism - Neutrality Act of 1937
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Illegal for US citizens to travel on belligerents' ships
Italian embargo extended to Spain - Austria, Munich Conference, Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia
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March 1938 - Hilter annexes Austria
September 1938 - Munich Conference: Hitler occupies Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia)
Hitler then takes over the rest of Czechoslovakia - Nazi-Soviet Pact
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Some wanted Germany and Russia to fight each other b/c fascism/communism opposite philosophies
August 23, 1939 - they sign a non-aggression pact - Poland: September 1, 1939
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Hitler invades Poland --> WWII officially begins
Britain and France come to Poland's aid (b/c of treaties) - FDR's response to Hitler's invasion of Poland
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Asks for repeal of embargo, approval of sales to arms to France/Britain on cash-carry basis (w/o risk of entering war)
Albert Einstein and other scientists alert FDR that Germany is working on an atomic bomb
FDR authorizes $ for project to build the bomb first, organized 1941 - "Phony War"
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Britain sends army to help France against Germany b/c Germany expected to attack
Nothing happens for months --> called "phony war"
Ends April 9, 1940 - Germany attacks Norway/Denmark - Blitzkrieg
- German "lightning war": armored vehicles, massive air strikes
- Maginot Line
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Series of fortifications to stop German invasion of France - ended up useless
Ineffective b/c Germans came around and attacked from the rear
French surrender - Destroyer-Base Deal
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FDR's deal w/England:
England gets 50 American destroyers
US gets right to naval/air bases on British territory - Lend-Lease
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FDR invents scheme to send things to Britain w/o getting $ in return
Calls it "lend-lease"
March 1941 - Congress passes Lend-Lease Act: ended fiction of neutrality
November 1941 - FDR extends lend-lease aid to Russia - Hitler's surprise attack on the Soviets
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June 22, 1941 - Hitler suddenly attacks Soviets --> now Germany fighting on 2 fronts
Soviets now US' ally (FDR gives lend-lease aid to USSR)
US now basically at war w/Germany - War Production Board
- Created by FDR to give business contracts a guaranteed fixed profit
- Office of Price Administration
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Controlled prices of certain items to contain inflation
Rationed scarce items - Revenue Act of 1942
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Raised taxes
More taxes on different things - National War Labor Board
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Set wages and hours, monitored working conditions
Allowed workers to keep their union memberships through contracts - Japanese-American Internment
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"Relocation centers" built in remote areas of the West
Japanese forced to leave their homes for these places - A. Philip Randolph
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1941 - organized a march on Washington to demand equal rights for blacks --> FDR alarmed
Randolph and FDR meet:
Randolph calls off the march
FDR issues Executive Order 8802 (US' policy is no discrimination in employment in defense industries or gov't) - Fair Employment Practices Commission
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Established to enforce Executive Order 8802 (US' policy is no discrimination in employment in defense/gov't)
Limited success in removing segregation - Zoot Suit Riots
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Mexican Americans migrate into cities --> anti-Mexican prejudice --> violence
Americans most angry toward Mexican gang members wearing zoot suits: called "Zoot Suit Riots"
Mexican American victims arrested, not white offenders - "Rosie the Riveter"
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Popular song about a girl working overtime and helping the country
Gov't had suggested it was women's patriotic duty to work on assembly lines - Women's Army Corps and WAVES
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WAVES - women's branch of Navy
350,000 women join the military in WWII in these two groups, also Coast Guard and Marines
WWII - first war for women to have regular military status - Four Freedoms
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January 1941 - said by FDR to be what US was fighting for
- Freedom of speech and expression
- Freedom of worship
- Freedom from want
- Freedom from fear - 1942 - Year of Disaster
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Japanese advances
Capture Dutch East Indies
Invade Burma, Wake Island, Guam, Aleutian Islands
US lose to Japanese at Corregidor Island
Problems in Europe
Germans invade Russia
German submarines sink British/US ships
North Africa Campaign
US/British troops attacking in North Africa
Germans attack US --> destroy large US force
The Holocaust
Nazis exterminating Jews and other groups (confirmed November 1942)
FDR takes little action b/c of US anti-Semitism, fear of mass Jewish immigration - Second Front
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Churchill wanted to surround Germany and not directly attack unless sure of success
Stalin wanted a second front - invasion of Europe to help Russian army
FDR agreed to second front, but this came in North Africa, not Europe --> Russia distrusts Britain/US - Dwight D. Eisenhower - WWII
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Commanding general of Allied armies in N African campaign
Assistant to General Douglas MacArthur in Philippines - Battle of Coral Sea
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May 1942 - US planes attack Japanese fleet to prevent invasion of New Guinea/Australia
1st naval battle fought entirely with planes
Battle of Midway - 1st major Japanese defeat, restoring some balance of power - Operation Overlord (D-Day)
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June 6, 1944 - complicated operation involving lots of troops, warships, planes
US invasion of Europe through Normandy in France - Dresden
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Feburary 13-14, 1945 - bombing of Dresden, Germany
Most destructive bombing raid of the war, no strategic purpose
Launched by US/British to show Stalin they were helping the Russians
Created 8-sq. mile firestorm, 135,000 civilian deaths - George Patton
- General who in July 1944 led US army out of Normandy and across France
- Battle of the Bulge
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US stoppage of German advance
Eisenhower offers to pardon military prisoners if they fought b/c so desperate for help - Question of Berlin
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Spring 1945 - tension b/n USSR and other Allies
British wanted to capture Berlin first
Eisenhower sends US troops away from Berlin to meet Russian troops
April 25, 1945 - US and Russians meet
May 2 - Russians take Berlin
Hitler commits suicide
May 8 - war in Europe ends - Yalta
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February 1945 - FDR, Churchill and Stalin meet at Yalta in the Crimea to discuss peace settlements
FDR wanted USSR's help in Pacific
USSR agrees to enter Pacific war 3 months after the end of the Europe war
USSR gets some territory
Europe
Germany split, Berlin divided
USSR gets 1/2 of Poland to protect its own border
Poland gets German land in exchange
Beginning of United Nations
April 1945 - San Francisco Conference: FDR, Stalin, Churchill write United Nations Charter
General Assembly, Security Council, Int'l Court of Justice - The Manhattan Project
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First organized 1941, one of the best-kept secrets of WWII
Task: to make an atomic bomb before Germany does
US' bomb successfully tested in New Mexico, but European war had already ended - Kamikaze
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Japanese suicide bomber planes
These and a semi-large military are the main remaining attributes of Japanese empire in 1945 - Chronology of the Atomic Bombings
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August 6, 1945 - atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima
August 8 - USSR enters the war, Japan refuses to surrender
August 9 - atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki
August 14 - Japan surrenders - Post-WWII Economic Boom
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Higher wages --> families could buy 'wants' in addition to 'needs'
US --> more affordable products - Post-WWII Auto Industry Expansion
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Auto --> status symbol
Development of huge interstate highway system --> more auto production, prosperity
Interstate Highway Act of 1956
Worsened pollution problem, made US dependent on constant, cheap, plentiful oil - Post-WWII Housing Industry
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More people began owning their own homes
GI Bill of 1944: low-interest home mortgages - Department of Defense
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Rise in defense spending w/escalation of Cold War
Nat'l Security Act of 1947 - created Dept. of Defense w/$13 billion budget
This rose to $47 billion by 1953
Supported armed forces --> helped aircraft, electronic industries - Leisure Time
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People had more leisure time in late 1940s-early '50s
Some thought a four-day work week would come soon - Baby Boom
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Peaked 1957 as population grew post-WWII
1957: one baby born every 7 seconds
Effects:
- Many women left work to be w/their children
- More demand for diapers, baby food, etc.
- More school enrollment - William Levitt
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Major figure in suburbanization movement
Builder - wanted to capitalize on the growing demand for suburb living
Used mass production as a key construction method: built houses in this fashion - Post-WWII Concern for Environment
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Developments (i.e. fast-food restaurants, shopping centers, housing developments) happened w/o planning
People appreciated environment more b/c had more free time --> took vacations, etc.
1958 - Congress est. Nat'l Outdoor Recreation Review Commission
1964 - Congress passes Nat'l Wilderness Protection Act, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
1968 - Congress passes National Trails Act - Computers
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Part of a large technological development wave post-WWII
1946 - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator built at U. of Pennsylvania
Computers --> :
- More sophisticated space exploration
- Computerization of airline, hotel, business systems
- Computer programmers in demand - Television
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Developed 1930s, gained an influence on US life post-WWII
TV programs influenced lifeways, esp. with 1960 Presidential Debates - Credit Card
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Expansion of consumer credit --> easier purchasing
By end of 1960s, 50 million credit cards in US - Under God and In God We Trust
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1954 - Congress adds the words "under God" to pledge of allegiance b/c Eisenhower thought gov't should be rooted in religion
1955 - phrase "In God We Trust" added to all US currency - Betty Friedan
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Author, wrote "The Feminine Mystique" 1963
Showed a profile of women in the 1950s-60s
Thought all they wanted was femininity and finding husbands - Alfred C. Kinsey
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1948 - publishes "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male"
Shocked US w/statistics of sexual acts
Also published "...Human Female"
Opened the door to sexuality (previously thought taboo) - Beat Generation
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Group of writers talking about untraditional values in their works
Stressed spontaneity, spirituality
"Intuition = more important than reason"
Helped by nationwide increase in interest for literature: paperback revolution - "The Other America"
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Michael Harrington, socialist author/critic
Wrote "The Other America" 1962
Said the poor were everywhere, describing conditions of rural poor - "Jet"
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Pocket-size weekly magazine w/large US circulation
Catered to national black community - The Cold War: in 2 sentences
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Cause: collapses of Asian, African, Middle Eastern colonial empires
US and USSR in conflict over differences in control policies - American World View, post-1945
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US, very powerful after WWII, wanted to get order in the world and achieve US goals:
Wanted to spread liberty, equality, democracy
Thought they could make the world stable - Soviet Aims, post-1945
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Governed by strong centralized gov't
Didn't want world conquest as much as internal socialism
First wanted to rebuild agriculture, industry - needed internal security - Harry Truman - his readiness to lead and his development
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Unprepared for the Presidency
Only 3 months as VP - insufficient knowledge of war issues
FDR did not confide in him
Quick responses to challenges, fast decisions on issues
Served most of FDR's 1944 term and then reelected 1948 - Eisenhower's leadership style and background
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Elected 1952 - 1st Republican president in 20 years
Very popular b/c warm and cuddly, but shrewd in some ways
Previous jobs: Army chief of staff, President of Columbia U., head of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Ability to get people to compromise - Truman and Eisenhower's view of Communism
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Truman wanted to take charge
Eisenhower worked behind the scenes to achieve his goals, no assualts
Both liked traditional American views of self-determination, US political superiority
Thought communism to be tyranny and generally bad - Joseph Stalin and Nikita Khrushchev
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Joseph Stalin - leader of USSR at end of WWII
Had almost total power, beat out all opponents decisively in 1930s
Would do anything to rebuild USSR society and still influence Eastern Europe
March 1953 - Stalin dies --> Nikita S. Khrushchev takes over (known as a bully) - Potsdam Conference
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July 1945 - Truman and Stalin meet for the first time
Last meeting of the Big Three (US, USSR, Britain) during WWII
Discussed:
- Russian/Polish boundary
- Fate of Germany
- US wanting Japan to surrender - Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech
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Response to Stalin's speech "Declaration of WWIII"
Delivered Missouri, 1946
Said "an iron curtain has descended across the continent"
Asked for association of English speakers to contain USSR - George Kennan/Mr. X/Containment
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Kennan - mostly responsible for defining "containment policy"
Thought USSR would not soften b/c they were upset w/their own leaders
So, USSR should always be opposed
Kennan publishes article in "Foreign Affairs" journal under pseudonym "Mr. X"
Soviet pressure must "be contained by application of counter-force" - Revolution in Greece
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Civil War in Greece: Communism vs. conservative ruling monarchy (supported by British)
February 1947 - British ambassador to US says Britain can't give Greece and Turkey military or $ anymore
The new question: would US take their place?
US Undersecretary of State: "Communist victory in Greece would make 3 continents subject to Soviet influence" - Truman Doctrine
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March 12, 1947 - speech to Congress
"US must support free people who resist defeat by armed minorities or outside pressures"
Unless US steps in, free world might die: asks Congress for $ to give Turkey and Greece
Passed despite some resistance - The Marshall Plan
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Secretary of State George Marshall, June 1947
- Troubled European countries should come up w/an aid program the US can deal with
- This program would help these countries and the US economy
- This would allow for political and social conditions allowing for free institutions
US eventually decides to give $17 billion to 16 countries over 4 years
Not supported by all Americans - Division of Germany
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At Yalta, Allied leaders decide to use zonal occupation to take over Germany
Four zones: Russians, Americans, British, French
After WWII, European balance of power shifts: USSR threatens to dominate
Late 1946 - US and British merge their zones to help economies - Berlin Airlift
- US and British Air Forces bring supplies to Berliners
- NATO
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North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Initiated by US, 1949
Next part of containment strategy - military alliance in Europe to complement economic program
12 countries in NATO; attack against one = attack against all - NSC-68
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Document written by Nat'l Security Council, 1950
Shaped US policy for 20 years
Said US' problems are huge, involving survival of civilization itself
Negotiation w/USSR is hopeless b/c they can't be trusted
US can continue in its current ways but won't achieve its goals: must increase defense spending by 15% - CIA (Central Intelligence Agency)
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Gov't relied on CIA in 1950s to get info about Communist moves
Established by Nat'l Security Act of 1947
Spied in foreign countries and analyzed information - John Foster Dulles
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Secretary of State for most of Eisenhower's 2 terms
Wanted to move past containment and start a holy crusade for democracy
Also wanted to free Soviet-dominated countries - Mao Zedong and the Chinese Revolution of 1949
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Mao Zedong - founder of branch of Communist party in China
Opposed by Nationalists (led by Jiang Jieshi)
Mao gets stronger during WWII, winning loyalty of peasants
1949 - Mao takes over, Jiang flees to Taiwan
October 1, 1949 - Mao proclaims the People's Republic of China - Reaction to Chinese Revolution in America
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Caused hysteria in US
Anti-Communists blamed Truman for Jiang's defeat b/c didn't support him enough
Viewed Chinese as Soviet puppets - Korean War - Causes
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Tensions remained after WWII
Korea wanted independence from Japan - Allies divide Korea along 38th parallel: Soviets accept Japanese surrender in North, US accepts Japanese surrender in South
Soviets set up gov't in North, US sets up gov't in South
Each gov't wanted to reunify Korea on its own terms
June 25, 1950 - North Korea invades South Korea - Truman's decision in response to North Korean invasion
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US taken by surprise
Truman thought it would become WWIII if unchallenged
Gets US naval/air forces ready, brings Gen. Douglas MacArthur from Japan to help South Korea - Douglas MacArthur and the Invasion of Inchon
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US forces bring North Koreans back to 38th parallel
UN troops cross the parallel (wanted to unify Korea under US' gov't)
Chinese mount huge counterattack --> UN forced back to parallel - Truman vs. MacArthur
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MacArthur wanted retaliation air strikes on China
Truman insisted on limited war
April 1951 - MacArthur publicly declares the Korean approach wrong
Truman removes MacArthur - many Americans angered - Outcome/Impact of the Korean War
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May 1953 - US threatens China w/atomic weapons
July 27, 1953 - armistice signed
Impact:
- 33,000 Americans killed in action
- 2 million Koreans dead
- First war w/integrated US military
- Huge increase in military spending (NSC-68)
- Relations w/China soured - Middle East: 1948
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UN tries to split Palestine into Arab and Jewish states
Truman recognizes State of Israel
Animosity remains b/n Arabs (robbed of territory) and Jews (gained a homeland)
Arab forces (Egypt, Trans-Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq) invade Israel - Israel wins - Middle East: 1956
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Arab nationalist Gen. Gamal Abdel Nasser wanted a dam on the Nile River to make electric power
US offers support, Nasser also talks w/USSR
US recalls its offer
July 1956 - Nasser seizes English-controlled Suez Canal, closes it to Israel --> England angry
October/November - Israeli, British, French invade Egypt
US sponsors UN resolution condemning the attacks (worried Nasser might turn to USSR and disrupt oil flow) --> invaders withdraw - Six Day War, Yom Kippur War
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1967 - Six Day War: Israel defeats Egypt
1973 - Yom Kippur War: Egypt defeats Israel - Castro, Cuba, and 1959
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1959 - Fidel Castro overthrows dictator Fulgencio Batista in Cuba
Castro takes US property in Cuba
Eisenhower stops exports, cuts diplomatic ties
Cuba turns to USSR for support - Hydrogen Bomb, ICBM, Fallout
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September 1949 - US discovers that USSR has the atomic bomb too: now no longer secure
Early 1950 - Truman authorizes development of Hydrogen Superbomb, worse than atom bomb
1953 - both US and USSR find secret of H-Bomb
1957 - USSR tests their first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM)
Fallout shelters become popular as public awareness/fear of radiation increases - Massive Retaliation, Dulles, Brinkmanship
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Dulles develops policy of "massive retaliation"
- US ready/willing to use nuclear weapons against Communism
- "More bang for the buck"
- All-or-nothing: no gray area b/n nuclear war and retreat
Critics call this "brinkmanship" - careful about use of nuclear weapons - Whittaker Chambers - Alger Hiss
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Chambers - former Communist, left party 1938, became editor of "Time"
Chambers charges Hiss w/being Communist in the 30s - Hiss denies it
Congressman Richard Nixon: gets Hiss to admit he once knew Chambers
Hiss sues Chambers for libel
Hiss indicted for perjury (lying under oath about relationship w/Chambers)
Proved: Communist threat exists in US - HUAC
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House Un-American Activities Committee
Searched movie industry for Communist activity - McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare - his tactics and why they worked
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Joseph R. McCarthy - key anti-Communist fighter in 1950s
Attacked various targets in gov't
Lots of press, TV coverage --> visibility
Went to extreme lengths to whip up anti-Communist spirit
This worked b/c people scared of Communists (thought a US communist leaked the atom bomb secret to USSR) - Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
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Ordinary family w/2 kids
Charged w/stealing and transmitting atomic secrets to USSR
Found guilty of espionage
Sentenced to death, having "caused Korean War" - McCarthy's Downfall
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Ike uneasy b/c of McCarthy's witch hunt: didn't want to challenge him b/c so popular
1953 - army drafts McCarthy's assistant and doesn't allow preferential treatment
McCarthy investigates army security
Army charges McCarthy w/going too far
Senate investigates
April-May 1954 - Army-McCarthy hearings
Showed power of TV to shape opinions: McCarthy shown as irresponsible, destructive
Senate condemns McCarthy
McCarthy stays in office but loses influence - Cuban Missile Crisis
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Castro afraid of US b/c of Bay of Pigs --> gets USSR's assistance
October 1962 - US gets pictures showing USSR had placed "offensive" missiles in Cuba
Cuba says "they're defensive, really"
JFK goes on TV to tell US about the missiles; demands their removal
Announces naval blockade to prevent more missiles
Khrushchev pledges to remove them if US ends blockade and promises to stay out of Cuba
US agrees
US ignores a request that they remove missiles from Turkey - Domino Theory
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LBJ's idea (shared by JFK)
If one country in a region falls, others follow
Must keep US intact and contain communism - Ho Chi Minh
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Communist organizer/revolutionary - led independence movement in Indochina to remove Japanese conquerors
1945 - establishes Democratic Republic of Vietnam (not recognized by US)
Struggle b/n Vietnamese and French (who colonized the area) --> becomes part of the Cold War - Ngo Dinh Diem
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Geneva agreement --> two Vietnams:
Ho Chi Minh in power in North
Diem (anti-communist) in power in South
US supports Diem's gov't --> military advisers assist S. Vietnamese
Vietnamese military leaders assassinate Diem, seize gov't - Viet Cong
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Another name for Vietnamese guerillas
Challenged S Vietnam's regime
Aided by Ho Chi Minh, N Vietnamese - Gulf of Tonkin Attack and Resolution
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In Gulf of Tonkin, 30 miles from N Vietnam, N Vietnamese attack US (who had intruded on N territory)
LBJ gets authority from Congress to use necessary measures to repel them
US becomes a major force in attacking Vietnam - Vietnamization
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Introduced by President Richard Nixon as part of Nixon Doctrine
Policy of removing US forces, replacing them w/Vietnamese forces - My Lai
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Small village in S Vietnam
Said to be harboring 250 members of Viet Cong
US infantry comes in to clear the village - instead found civilians
US kills the civilians anyway
Whoops - Kent State
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One college campus demonstration in response to Nixon's invasion of Cambodia
Police called to contain gathering student crowd
Students set Reserve Officers' Training Corps building on fire
Governor of OH orders Nat'l Guard to Kent State
Soldiers fire w/o provocation --> 4 dead, 9 wounded
Students, other Americans outraged - Detente
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Nixon's steps toward advancement in foreign policy
First nuclear arms treaties: thaw in the Cold War
Opens formal relations w/China
Nixon's visit to China
Chinese friendship helpful in dealing w/USSR
Also visits Russia: first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty signed (SALT I)
- Limitation of missile stockpiles
- Working together in space race - 80th Congress
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New Congress convened after 1946 midterms
Both houses now dominated by Republicans and conservative Democrats
Wanted to reverse FDR's New Deal policies Truman was trying to continue
Asked for less gov't intervention in business - Taft-Hartley Act of 1947
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Limited power of unions by restricting weapons they could use in striking
Revised Wagner Act of 1935 by listing unfair labor practices
Gave President the right to call for "cool-off" period afterr a strike affecting nat'l security
Required union officials to sign anti-Communist pledges - Dixiecrats
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Dixiecrat Party or States' Rights Party
Formed by Democrat delegates from MS and AL, angry after Democrats take a stronger stand on black civil rights
Supported segregation - Progressive Party
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Henry A. Wallace: Presidential candidate
Fired from Truman's cabinet for moderately approaching USSR
Attracted liberals
Moderate USSR/US position
Desegregation
Possible communist ties --> interest drops - Fair Deal
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Name for Truman's domestic program
Components:
- Raising of minimum wage
- Expansion of social security
- Some gains in housing
- Integration of military
Ratified many ideas of New Deal, kep liberals alive - Dynamic Conservatism
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One name for Ike's approach to gov't
Wanted to reduce role of executive branch, limit the role of gov't in society - The Election of 1960
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JFK: gov't and Pres must be more active than in Ike's years
JFK vs. Republican Richard Nixon
First televised debates --> huge difference in campaign
JFK slimly beats Nixon - New Frontier
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JFK: thought US was entering a new era, must confront new ideas/direction
Committed to extending welfare, expanding economy
Used Keynesian theory to bring US out of its recession - NASA
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JFK wanted the US to put a man on the moon in the 60s
Congress puts more $ into NASA (Nat'l Aeronautics and Space Administration)
Worried about USSR space achievements - Peace Corps
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Established by JFK
Sent people overseas to help in developing countries - Lee Harvey Oswald
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Accused assassin of JFK in Dallas, November 22, 1963
Shot several days later in jail - Great Society
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Phrase used to describe LBJ's reform program
Wanted to pick up where JFK left off:
- Reduce taxes
- Ensure civil rights
- Help public education
- Medical care for elderly
- Eliminate poverty
Achieved tax cut, began War on Poverty - Medicare and Medicaid
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LBJ's programs for care for elderly
Medicare tied to social security
Medicaid helped those on welfare, who couldn't afford private insurance
These programs: most important increase of federal social benefits since Social Security Act of 1935 - Immigration Act of 1965
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Increased immigration limits, allowed Asian Americans/Latin Americans in
Exempted family members of US citizens, political refugees from quotas
Brought a huge stream of immigration --> more diverse population
Replaced Immigration Act of 1924 - Earl Warren
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Chief Justice of Supreme Court in 60s
One of 4 new liberal justices appointed by JFK/LBJ
Affirmed black support, civil liberties
Ruled against requiring of prayer in public schools - Vietnam and the Great Society
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LBJ wanted to deal w/Vietnam and Great Society at the same time
Trying to do both --> inflation
Military spending, unwillingness to raise taxes --> more inflation
Congress eventually cuts Great Society programs - 1968 Democratic Convention
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Chicago - LBJ's VP Hubert H. Humphrey vs. Nixon
Police club demonstrators, reporters, bystanders on nat'l TV
Worked in Nixon's favor - Arab Oil Embargo
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Disrupted Nixon's economy
Early 1970s - OPEC (Organization of Petroluem Exporting Countries) raised oil prices
Arab-Israeli War --> embargo on oil shipped to US (Israeli ally)
US needs these imports for energy --> shortages, high prices
Embargo ends 1974, prices stay high
Leads to unemployment, recession - CREEP
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Committee to Re-elect the President
Headed by John Mitchell, former Attorney General)
Collected lots of $ to make Nixon look good
Contained intelligence branch headed by former CIA, FBI members - Watergate (extremely condensed)
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June 1972 - CREEP leaders try to tap Democratic Nat'l Committee's phones
Nixon involved in trying to cover it up - hush money to leaders of CREEP
Woodward/Bernstein begin to uncover the story
One convicted burglar testifies: White House was involved
May 1973 - Senate's public hearings
- Nixon knew about the cover-up and paid hush money out
- Several forged State Dept. documents
- Nixon had a taping system in his office to record conversations
Nixon denies others' access to the tapes --> decline in popularity
House Judiciary Committee votes to impeach Nixon
Nixon releases the tapes (18.5 minutes of silence) --> his role in the cover-up made clear
August 9, 1974 - Nixon becomes 1st US president to resign, Ford takes over
Watergate --> distrust in the Presidency - Woodward and Bernstein
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Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein
Reporters from Washington Post
Tracked leads to uncover Watergate - Gerald Ford
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Appointed VP 1973 after resignation of Nixon's 1st VP
Became President after Nixon's resignation
Views:
- Opposed federal $ for education, poverty, mass transit
- Wanted to stop liberal advances of the 1960s
Pardons Nixon one month after his resignation
Inflation --> economic problems
- Huge recession
- Huge tax cut from Ford - Jimmy Carter
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Up for election 1976 vs. Ford
Appealed to people who didn't like politics, used media (TV!) to be more direct
Never had clear political priorities
Allowed deficit spending --> liberals happy --> inflation
Could not make a good energy policy - Deregulation
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Removal of gov't controls in economic life
Made liberals mad
Used this system on oil, railroads, trucking, airline industries - Fort Duquesne
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Established by French at fork of OH River
Attacked by George Washington (British) - French win
Attacked by General Edward Braddock and British army
French (with help of Indians) defeat English badly
Almost all tribes north of OH River now side w/French - Albany Plan
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Ben Franklin's attempt to ally the colonies
- Tried to coax Iroquois into helping
- Tried to unify the colonies
Both failed - General Braddock
- British General who led Brits to Duquesne, Summer 1755
- William Pitt
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Becomes English prime minister in 1757, claiming to be able to save the nation
Concentrated military on colonies
English military unable to overtake French w/o Indian help - Treaty of Paris (1763)
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Ended Seven Years' War
Interior Indians now depended on settlers' trade
England gets Canada and all territory east of Mississippi except New Orleans from France
Now English are the only source of trade goods for the natives - Proclamation of 1763
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English gov't creates racial boundary along Appalachians from Maine-Georgia to separate natives/colonists
Failed completely (colonists didn't like being boxed in)
Ottawa chief Pontiac tried to rally tribes against English, failed
England did not adhere to the Proclamation - land speculators encroach on natives' land - Social/economic effects of Seven Years' War
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Gave colonists confidence in their strength but left them w/debt and loss of manpower
Gave rise to economic development and gave colonies British $
Colonies now vulnerable to British economic stability --> economic slump - George Grenville
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Chief Minister of English King George III at end of Seven Years' War
Proposes new taxes in England/America to reduce huge nat'l debt
Goals:
- Finance overtaking of French Canada/frontier
- Remind colonists they are still subjects of the crown
Initiated tension b/n England and the colonies - Sugar Act of 1764 (aka Revenue Act)
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Reduced tax on imported French molasses
Added to list of products that could only be sent to England
Strengthened punishments of violators of trade laws - Currency Act of 1764
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All colonies (formerly just New England) forbidden from issuing paper money
Led to constricted trade - Stamp Act of 1765
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Required purchase of stamps on certain items, i.e. all paper items such as mail
Grenville gave colonists time to think of other methods of raising $
Colonists couldn't come up with anything better, although most disliked Stamp Act - Stamp Act Riots
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Some VA planters already in debt (decline in tobacco prices, war taxes)
May 1765 - House of Burgesses writes 7 resolutions against Parliament
- Sent to other colonies
Boston riots
Attack property of people associated w/Stamp Act
New York, Rhode Island
Sons of Liberty led riots in these colonies
Stamp Act Congress - Stamp Act Congress
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October 1765
Formal protest attended by representatives of 9 colonies
12 resolutions
- accepted Parliament's right to govern colonies
- denied their right to tax them directly (taxation w/o representation) - Declaratory Act of 1766
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Parliament debates American reactions to Stamp Act, votes to repeal it
Instead passes Declaratory Act
Gives Parliament power to enact laws for colonies "in all cases whatsoever"
Beginning of feelings that Parliament is removing colonies' rights - Townshend Duties
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Taxes on paper, lead, painters' colors, tea
MA House of Reps sends letter to all colonies objecting to the acts
Heavy Boston protests
England sends in troops (Redcoats) to quiet Bostonians
Bostonians begin economic boycotts
1768 - southern colonies: nonimportation agreements
Townshend Duties failed
March 5, 1770 - Parliament repeals all Townshend Duties
British troops fired upon Bostonians
MA Gov. orders British troops out - Gaspee Incident
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RI colonists burn British ship Gaspee
RI court convicts captain of illegally taking what he thought was smuggled sugar/rum
Sam Adams (leader of Boston radicals) uses this event to "awaken the American colonies" - Boston Tea Party
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Citizens vow to stop importation of the tea and send it back to England
MA Gov. refuses to give in to public demand
Bostonians sneak into the ships and throw the tea into the Boston harbor - Coercive Acts (called Intolerable Acts in Boston)
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Closed Boston port to all shipping until MA paid for lost tea
Removed veto power from MA council and gave legislature body-appointing duties to Gov. - 1st Continental Congress
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September 1774 - Meets in Philly - delegates from all colonies (except GA)
A means of resolving differences
Issued Declaration of Rights and Resolves - Opposition to the Coercive Acts (Continental Congress)
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Samuel and John Adams (MA)
Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry (VA)
All voice outright resistance - Declaration of Rights and Resolves
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Issued at 1st Continental Congress
- Define American complaints
- Justify colonies' opposition to English
- If England did not repeal Coercive Acts by Dec. 1, a ban on all imports/exports b/n colonies, Britain, Ireland and British W. Indies would begin
Colonial unification! - General Thomas Gage
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Commander-in-Chief of British forces in America
Assumes governorship of MA and places troops in Boston
April 1775 - British order Gage to arrest MA revolutionaries
Gage sends troops to steal colonial arms in Concord
First skirmish b/n Minutemen and Redcoats - Lexington and Concord
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British troops sent to steal colonial arms in Concord --> 1st skirmish b/n Minutemen and Redcoats
British fight Minutemen in Concord --> word spreads to other colonies
Americans send troops to Lexington to meet British --> fighting - 2nd Continental Congress
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Philly, May 1775
Authorized continental army, chose George Washington as Cmdr-in-Chief
Issued Declaration of Causes of Taking-up Arms
Sent king Olive Branch Petition - Olive Branch Petition
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Sent to King from 2nd Continental Congress, asking to help with peace
King rejects it and sends more troops to stop the American insurrection - Thomas Paine
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January 9, 1776 - Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" appears in Philly
Clear expression of rebel thought --> more serious thinking of independence -
Thomas Jefferson and
The Declaration of Independence -
Declaration called for by Richard Henry Lee, June 7, 1776
Jefferson chairs committee to begin writing
Came mostly from already-written things by Congress to justify American struggles
Brought before Congress June 28
July 1 - 9 colonies vote for it, 2 against, 1 split, 1 abstains
July 2 - all colonies vote in favor except NY's abstention --> unanimous
Sent to printer July 4, 1776 - General Howe and his early efforts in Boston
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General William Howe - British commander
March 7, 1776 - decides to evacuate Boston b/c dangerous to move to countryside
Boston had been decimated - continued to be monitored by British for next 6 years - Trenton and Princeton
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December 1776 - Washington defeats British at Trenton
January 1777 - Washington defeats British at Princeton
Rebels' primary goal = survival - Washington's style of fighting
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Knew that British were too powerful for rebels
Could not lose or else independence would be lost
Decided to avoid major battles, harass British and invoke costs upon them - Saratoga
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October 1777 - American victory at Saratoga, NY
Stopped the recent British wave of victories - Articles of Confederation
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Written by committee headed by John Dickinson
Compromise b/n one gov't vs. confederation of states' gov'ts
Powers given to federal gov't:
- Regulate foreign affairs
- Declare war
- Mediate boundary disputes
- Manage post office
- Administer relations with Indians living outside state boundaries
Powers denied to federal gov't (some given to states):
- Could not raise troops/levy taxes, but could ask states for support
- Each state to retain its freedom, independence
- Amendments possible only through unanimous agreement - Problems w/the Articles of Confederation
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War still continuing while waiting for unanimous ratification
Congress sometimes paralyzed b/c needed 9-vote majority on most decisions
States had only one vote and often disputes kept states from voting at all
Washington criticized Congress for inability to support the army
1778 - Congress gives Washington power to manage the war on his own - British Revolution in the South
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War in N became a stalemate --> British decide to invade S
Loyalists would respond to British
S'ern coastline good for British navy
Slaves: lured to British favor?
December 1778 - British take Savannah, major GA port
May 12, 1780 - Charleston surrenders to British control after 1-month siege
Costliest American defeat of the war
Camden, SC - British commander Cornwallis kills/captures nearly 2000 Americans
Temporarily destroys S'ern continental army
March 1781 - Guilford Court House, NC - Cornwallis wins but retreats to Wilmington b/c large cost
April 1781 - Cornwallis moves to Virginia b/c VA supplying goods to rebels
Cornwallis defeats VA, but another large cost so goes to Yorktown for protection - The French, The French, The French
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1778 - French gov't signs treaty w/American Congress: will send its navy into the war
August 30, 1781 - French arrive off Yorktown coast and establish naval superiority
Help to win Yorktown