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in some ways the ____can be considered a continuation of the airway above the trachea: larynx
phonation: production of sound by the larynx.
do all phonemes require sound from the larynx: no
which phonemes require sound from the larynx: voiced phonemes
what is the larynx made of?: one bone, nine cartilages
what type of tissue is the larynx made of: special connective tissue
name of the bone involved with the larynx: Hyoid bone. unpaired
describe the relationship between the larynx, ligaments, and hyoid bone: the larynx is suspended by ligaments and muscles from the hyoid bone
the hyoid bone is the base of what muscle: the tongue
what is unique about the hyoid bone: it does not articulate with any other bone
what is the shape of the hyoid bone and does it have any openings: shaped like a horseshoe, open posteriorly
what is the name of the anterior part of the hyoid bone: the BODY (corpus)
what are the sides of the hyoid bone: major horns, sometimes called cornua
what is found at the junction of the body and major horns of the hyoid bone: minor horns that protrude upward (cephalic)
what is often said about cricoid cartilage: "specialized" tracheal cartilage
how does the cricoid cartilage differ from tracheal cartilages: the cricoid cartilage is a complete circle.
the cricoid is often likened to a _____: signet ring
which surface of the cricoid cartilage is larger: the posterior surface is larger than the anterior or lateral surfaces
what shape does the cricoid cartilage have?: hexagonal
what is the cricoid cartilage firmly attached to?: the the 1st tracheal ring(which is inferior to it)
how does the cricoid cartilage attach to the 1st tracheal ring: by ligaments, and smooth muscle, similar to the attachment of a tracheal ring to another tracheal ring.
to what is the cricoid cartilage superiorly attached: thyroid cartilage
the thyroid cartilage has 2 ______: quadrilateral plates (laminae)
to what are the laminae anteriorly attached: thyroid notch (adam's apple)
where is the thyroid notch opened and what is the opening filled with: open posteriorly, filled with connective tissue
what is the angle of the thyroid: the junction of the quadrilateral plates (which forms a rougly vertical line)
what is found at the posterior corners of the laminae: two superior and inferior horns, or cornua
are the superior or the inferior horns larger: the superior horns of the thyroid cartilage are larger
what do the inferior horns of the thyroid cartilage articulate with: cricoid cartilage
what do the superior horns rise toward: the hyoid bone, but they do not quite reach
because of the type of articulation, what is the thyroid cartilage able to do?: "rock" forward and back on its artiulations with the cricoid
does it twist or slide: no
will the distance between the thyroid notch and the cricoid posterior plate increase or decrease if the thyroid rocks forward?: increase
on the superior surface of the posterior plate of the cricoid cartilage, between teh thyroid laminae are the...: arytenoid cartilages which are paired
how do the arytenoid cartilages compare to the cricoid and thyroid cartilages according to size: arytenoid cartilages are much smaller
each arytenoid cartilage has what shape: tetrahedral pyramid ( four-sided, with a three-sided base and an apex)
the arytenoid cartilage mounts on the posterior, superior surface of what?: cricoid cartilage
by what is the arytenoid cartilage enclosed laterally?: thyroid cartilage
since the arytenoids are tetrahedral they have...: 4 projections or corners or angles
what is the name of the anterior projetion of each arytenoid?: vocal process
what attaches to the vocal proces: vocal ligament and muscle (thyroarytenoid)
the lateral posterior corner of the arytenoid cartilage is the: muscular process
what attaches to the muscular process: 2 muscles, the lateral and posterior cricoarytenoids, names simply by their attachments to cartilages
what is the superior point of the arytenoid: the apex
across what surface can the arytenoids slide a little over the cricoid: superior surface
in what plane can the arytenoids tilt: transverse
is the epiglottis paired or unpaired: unpaired
what is the epiglottis shaped like?: like a spoon with the stem (handle) down and the convex surface forward
in the area above the larynx, which wall does the epiglottis form: anterior
what is the epiglottis enclosed in part by: hyoid bone
where is the epiglottis in relation to the tongue: posterior
what is the lower stem of the epiglottis attached to: the thyroid cartilage
at what surface is the epiglottis and thyroid caritlage attached: the inner surface of hte thyroid angle
can the epiglottis rotate around its articulation with the thyroid cartilage: yes
can the spoon-like part move in the antero-posterior plane?: yes
corniculate cartilages: paired
where are the corniculate cartilages found: small pyramids on top of the apex of each arytenoid cartilage.
how do the corniculate cartilages appear in relation to the arytenoid cartilages: they look like they are part of the arytenoids (sor of an extension superiorward)
what type of attachement do the corniculates and arytenoids have...and what type of movement do they have because of this attachemtn: they are rigidly attached to the arytenoids such that the corniculate and arytenoid cartilages move as one unit.
cuneiform cartilages articulate with any other cartilage or bone: no
where are the cuneiform cartilages found: soft tissue (aryepigolttic folds)
what does the cuneiform cartilage do to the sides of the airway through the larnyx: stiffen the sides
are cuneiform cartilages visivle in xray images of the larynx: yes
membranes and ligaments of the larynx: tissues that actually enclose the airway, forming a continuous tube, similar to the membranes and connective tissues of the trachea enclose the tube)
what cartilage is the lower stem of the epiglottis attached to?: thyroid cartilage at the inner surface of the thyroid angle.
can the epiglottis rotate around its articulation with the thyroid cartilage?: yes somewhat
which plane can the spoon-like part of the epiglottis move in?: antero-posterior plane
is the corniculate cartilage paired or unpaired: paired
describe the corniculate cartilage: small pyramids on top of the apex of each arytenoid cartilage.
what cartilage do the corniculate cartilages look like?: loook like part of the arytenoids, sort of an extension superiorward.
what cartilage aret he corniculate cartilages attached to: ridgidly attached to the arytenoids such that the corniculate and arytenoid cartilages move as one unit
what does the cuneiform cartilage articulate wtih: does not articulate with other cartilages or bone
describe the cuneiform cartilage..waht type of material: soft tissue
purpose of cuneiform: may stiffen sides of the airway through the larynx.
problem with cuneiform: prone to infection or cancerous growth
what tissues actually enclose the airway of the of the laryxn forming a continuous tube: membranes and ligaments
considered the extrinsic membrane: hyothroid membrane
why is it considered the extrinsic membrane: it is outside of the volume enclosed by the cricoid and thyroid cartilages.
what margin does the hyothyroid membrane make up?: upper margin from the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone.
describe the medial section of the hyothyroid membrane: meidal section is thicker than the rest of the membrane, thich part may be called the hyothyroid ligament
what does the cricothyroid membrane connect: connects the cricoid, thyroid, and arytenoid
another name for cricothyroid membrane: conus elasticus and cricovocal membrane
describe the medial portion of the cricothyroid membrane: thickened and is the medial cricothyroid ligament, which runs from anterior-superior of the cricoid cartilage to the interior of the thyroid angle
where does the conus elasticus run specifically: from the lateral margins of the cricoid superior ward and medially to a free, thichened border, the vocal ligament
where is the vocal ligament attached: to the posterior surface of the thyroid angle and to the vocal processes of the arytenoids.
name of the space between the vocal folds,: glottis
where does the quadrangular mambrane run: paired, from lateral margin of epiglottis and interior of thyroid angle to the anytenoid and corniculate cartilages.
where does teh quadrangular membrane end?: ends in a free margin(thickend), the ventricular ligament.
what does the quardrangular membrane form: part of the Aryepiglottic, or Ventricular fold, (false vocal folds)
what cartilages are imbedded in the aryepiglottic folds: cuneiform cartilages
what does the laryngeal cavities form: the volume from the inferior margin of the cricoid cartilage up to the Aditus laryngis.
what is the aditus bounded by: the epiglottis, the aryepiglottic folds, and the apices of the arytenoid carilages (really the corniculate cartilages)
what is found posterior to the aditus: a depression on either side known as the Pyriform Sinus
IS the pyriform Sinus important for speech: no, but is the site of some laryngeal problems including infections and cancer
what are teh volumes above and below the glottis called: above the glottis is the supraglottal. below the glottis is the subglotal
vestibule: part of the supraglottal volume. the superior cavity, also known as aditus. from teh superior opening of the larynx to the level of the ventricular folds.
ventricle: supraglottal volume. from teh ventricular folds to the vocal folds. also known as the Laryngeal Sinus.
what is the sublgottal region englosed by: by the cricoid cartilage
what are most muscles named by: their attachments
what are the two groups of muscles: intrinsic( both attachemtns to the laryngeal cavities) and extrinsic (atleast one attachment is not to laryngeal cartilage
what is the only abductor(opener) of the vocal folds: posterior cricoarytnoid m.
what does the cricoarytenoid m. do?: pulls the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage toward midline, which in turn rotates the vocal processes away from midline. thus the glottis is widened
what do the medial compressors of the vocal folds do?: bring the folds together and apply pressure toward the center
two types of muscles found between the arytenoids: Oblique interarytenoids and Transverse interarytenoid m.
how many transverse interarytenoid m. are ther?: there are two, but it is difficult to see bc they are interdigitated
what do the interarytenoid muscles do?: bring the posterior margins of the arytenoid cartilage together, thus effecting closure of the posterior part of the airway in the larynx.
where do the arytenoid cartilages slide?: across the superior surface of the cricoid cartilage
what does the lateral cricoarytenoid do?: brings the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage forward, this rotates the arytenoid cartilages somewhat which brings the vocal processes toward midline. This action provides closure of the atnerior part of the airway, bringing the vocal ligaments together.
Tensors of the vocal folds.: both internal and external thyroarytenoid (vocalis) muscle and cricothyroid muscle
the thyroiarytenoid m. form waht: the bulk of the vocal folds
what happens when the thyroiarytenoid m. are contracted: they thicken and become stiff.
which is more important, the internal or the external thyroarytenoid?: internal
describe the movement of the thyroarytenoid m/.: move with the vocal folds, but do not directly cause the motion
what does the cricothyroid m. do: brings the anterior portion of the thyroid cartilage closer to the cricoid cartilage (rocking the thyroid around its articulation at the inferior horns)
what does the rocking of the thyroid do?: lengthens the distance from the arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid notch, thus tensing the vocal folds.
Supraglottic, intrinsic muscles: aryepiglottic m., thyroepiglottic m.
aryepiglottic m.: really extensions of the oblique interarytenoid m. contrict the airway, may depress epiglottis
thyroepiglottic m.: englarges aperture, depresses epiglottis
extrinsic superior (suprahyoid) m: may elevate all or part of the larynx. may also move the tongue or jaw. digastric, stylohyoid, mylohyoid, geniohyoid, thyrohyoid
extrinsic, inferior (infrahyoid) m.: may depress all or part of larynx. sternohyoid, omohyoid, sternothyroid
where do the vocal folds extend: from posterior surface of the thyroid angle to the vocal processes and medial surfaces of the arytenoid cartilages.
is the anterior attachemtn of the two folds common?: yes
they also attach along the lateral wall of teh _____: thyroid cartilage
what is the effect of the lateral wall attachemtn: flexible ledge from either side of the larynx, terminating at midline int he vocal ligament
4 things each vocal fold containts: 1. the vocal ligament (therfore the upper part of the conus elasticus)
2. the vocalis muscle (internal thyroarytenoid)
3. the external thyroarytenoid muscle (part of this muscles is not in the vocal folds)
4. a membranous covering
the posterior section of the glottis: about 2/5 of the glottis is bounded by the vocal porcesses of the arytenoids and is knownas the cartilaginous portion of the glottis.
anterior section of the glottis: about 3/5 is bounded by muscle and ligament and is known as the membranous portion of the glottis
what is the width of the glottis controlled by: by the position of the arytenoids, particularly by the vocal processes
abduction: opening, taking away from the center
adduction: is clossing
what is phonation: invloves a periodic interuuption of the airflow from the lungs
what forms the interruption: at the glottis and is made by the closure of the vocal folds.
does this opening and closing involve an alteration of conraction of the abductor and adductor muscles?: no, it involves a complex interaction of forces
are the adductors or abductors constantly active during normal phonation?: adductors, abductors are not invovled at any time
does the larynx itself make sound?: not too much
what is the sound from: it is a result of the bursts of air into the supraglottal region exciting a resonance.
pitch: a function of the rate of glottal opening and closing. the mroe frequently the glottis opens (times per sec), the higher the pitch
fundamental frequency: pitch, measured in hertz, determined by the rate of vocal fold vibration
pitch change: pitch of the voice is determined by the rate of opening and closing of the vocal folds. Each opening and closing is a chycle and the number of cycles per seond is the pitch
what will make the vocal folds move faster: if their mass is reduced and/or thier stiffness is increased. faster opening can reduce the duration of a cycle of opening and closing.
if the vocal folds were strings (which they are not): their length would be a primary determinant of pitch (which it is not)
raising pitch is accomplished by the combination of: mass and stiffness change. stiffness is hte same as tension
what does contraction of the cricothyroid muscle do: draws the thyroid notch away from the arytenoids, stretching the vocal folds, thus increasing tension and decreasing mass per unit lenght.
what needs to happen for the cricothyroid process of increasing tension to work?: the posterior cricoarytenoid m. simultaneously must hold the arytenoids in place. the PCA is not a tensioner of the vocal folds, but it does have an essential role in the process.
what happens when the thyroarytenoid muscle contracts: it increases the internal stiffness
what may the extrinsic m. of the larynx (both superior and inferior) do to the vocal folds: lengthen slightly
how can pitch be lowered: contraction of the thyroarytenoid m. wo concomitant contraction of the cricothyroid m. This increases mass of the thyroarytenoid m. (mass/unit length) but not its tension
what is intensity change a function of: of how much air gets through the glottis in each cycle.
what is the primary cause of increase in intensity: increase in subglottal pressure.
what is the intensity increase mediated by: expiratory m.s
what must happen at the same time of intensity increase to prevent simultaneous pitch rise: the vocal folds must at the same time increase in deial compression(adductor m.)
what is the state of the glottis when producing a whispher: almost but not quite closed. whisper is not phonation, but frication. the vocal processes of the arytenoids are brought together (lateral cricoarytenoid ms.) and the posterior medial parts of the arytenoids are kept apart (interarytenoid m. are not contracted)
describe teh vocal processes during a whisper state: the vocal processes of the arytenoids are brought together (lateral cricoarytenoid ms.) and the posterior medial parts of the arytenoids are kept apart (interarytenoid m. are not contracted) the result is a small, rougly triangular opening between teh arytenoid cartilages
whta is breathy voice produced by: a leak through the glottis, usually at the posterior edge (between arytenoid cartilages) a small opening during phonation is knowns as a glottal chink
what produces rough or hoarse voice: when the vocal folds are vibrating slightly out of synchornization with each other. this will happen if the masses differ slightly. irritaion and infection often cause small mass change in one vocal fold.
polyps or nodules: growths on the vocal folds, that cause rough phonation becuase of unequal masses of each fold, and can cause breathy voice because thy get int he way of full closure. since mass has an effect on rate of movemnt, unequal masses will cuase the two vocal folds to come together off center and at irregulra intervals. this inturn causes a pitch variation(jitter) which we call roughenss of voice
what can build up when vocal folds come together hard, such as with very loud speech: heat can build up. this in turn can cuase tissue damage and fluid build up (EDEMA) this can cause a hoarse voice because of the unequal masses. often the first sign of cancer of the larynx usually on the vocal folds is a horase voice.
laryngitis: infections usually baterial of the larynx are common.
bacteria: may form a colny on one or both vocal folds. as the bacteria multiply, thier mass increases. the mass of hte vocal fold also increases. which slows movemnt, increasing the duration of each glottal cycle. this accounts for the pitch lowering commonly observed in laryngitis.
if the infection is on one vocal fold or worse on one fold: the masses of the two folds may differ, giving the rougness effect.
what causes ederma: the body's immune system will normally tru to eliminate the bactera. to do this, the immune system sends extra fluids to the area that is infected.
articulate refers to: modification of the sounds fromt eh larynx and generation of some additional sounds both by teh structures that are downstream, above the glottis.
what is included in articulaters: the oral and nasal cavities and the lips and nostrils.
what are articulaters used for: both voiced and voicless sounds, chewing, swallowing.
what would speech sound like withoout articulators: a buzz.
frontal bone: A cranial bone consisting of a vertical portion corresponding to the forehead and a horizontal portion that forms the roofs of the orbital and nasal cavities.
parietal bones: 2- covers the parietal lobes
occipital bone: covers the occipital lobe. foramen magnum, occipital condyles are here.
temporal bones: 2- partly covered by temporal lobes. squamous portion, syloidm mastoid, and zygomatic processes, sigmoid sinus, petrous portion, cochlea, auditory meatus, ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) middle ear cavity
sphenoid bone: hamulus, sella Turcica, pterygoid plates
ethmoid bone: crista galli, cribriform plate, ethmoid sinus, perpendicular plate
what is the interior of the cranium divided into: the anterior, middle and posterior fossae which are hollows that hold teh frontal, temporal, and occipital lobes of the brain. this floor of the cranium is sometiems called the skull base. you can see this if you look into a skull with the top removed.
sutures: lines bones of the cranium are joined along.
2 most prominent sutures: sagittal and coronal sutures
what happens to sutures as you age: they fill. flexible at birth. in an infant, the juncture of the sagittal and coronal sutures is knowns as the anterior fontanelle.
whta will you see if you view a skull from below: you should be able to identify the Foramen Magnum (of the occipital bone), a hole through which the brainstem passes, and the Mastoid and Styloid Processes of the temporal bone, to which several muscles attach
which vertebrae allow the skull to rotate side to side: axis
which vertebrae allow the skull to rotate up and down: the atlas
the atlas articultaes with the skull at the _____: occipital condyles
the mandible rotates around the_____: Temporomandibular joint (TMJ)which is the joint of the condylar process of the mandible with the temporal bone. this is a saddle joint
we think of the mandible as normally closed, but iff all muscles are relaxed....: the mandible drops due to gravity
masseter muscle: mandibular elevator. largest muscle of facial area. attaches to zygomatic bone. strong for chewing particularly at the molars. quadrilateral muscle. zygomatic arch to lateral surface of body of mandible ( at the angle)
temporalis muscle: mandibular elevator. more control. rapid movements. fan-like. covers squamous portion of the temporal bone. to coronoid process to mandible (ramus) more for speech.
Medial pterygoid muscle: mandibular elevator. potentially invovled in elevation. must less important than the massester muscle and the temporalis muscle. quadrilateral from lateral pterygoid plate and palatine bone to medial surface of ramus of the mandible.
3 mandible elevators: masseter, temporalis, medial pterygoid
4 mandigular depressor muscles(depression means opening in this case): Digastricus, mylohyoid, geniogyoid, lateral pterygoid
Digastricus m.: two-bellied
anterior and posterior bellies of digastricus m. are joined by a: tendon
what is the tendon that attaches these two bellies attached to: the hyoid bone
the anterior belly attaches to the: mental symphysis
posterior belly attaches to the: mastoid process of the temporal bone
entire m. can ______the larynx (via the hyoid bone): elevate
anterior belly ______: the mandible
mylophyoid m.: esentially the floor of the mouth. medial surface of the body of the mandible to the boyd of the hyoid bone. the left and right mylohyoid muscles are connected to one another along the midline raphe.
geniohyoid muscle: superior to mylohyoid. from mental symphysis to hyoid bone
lateral pterygoid muscle: lateral to the medial pterygoid m. can pull back the mandible. potentially invovled in elevation
orbicularis oris m.: facial muscle. fibers encircle the lips. essentially a sphincter, or "purse-string" m. concompress or retract the lips. many other muscles enter the orbicularis oris.
buccinator m.: facial m. essentially in the cheek. from corner of the mouth back, therfor draws the lips back (spread)
risorius m.: facial m. 1/2 of ppl dont' have. similar to buccinator, but smaler and usually directed somewhat upward fromt he corner of the lips.
levator anguli: raises corners
levator labii superior m.: facial m. lower margin of orbit and zygomatic arch to upper lip near midline. elevates lip. may evert lip.
depressor labii inferior muscle: facial m. lower lip to mandible near midline. depresses lower lip.
oral cavity: tongue, palate
buccal cavity: cheeks, glands
phaaryngeal cavity: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, tonsils and adenoids which are tonsils, and glands here. they may get infected (tonsilitis)
nasal cavity: nares, cartilages, septum, conchae
divisions of vocal tract: oral cavit, buccal cavity, pharyngeal cavity,, nasal cavity
tongue: mostly muscle, with some connective tissue, taste buds and other sensory cells.
lingual frenulum: connects tongue to floor of oral cavity. lenth of frenulum is absolutely unimportant for speech. there is sometimes reference made to a condition called "tongue tied" which is supposed to invovle a short frenulum. all phonemes can be made even with a very short frenulum, although making them well might require guidance and practice
intrinsic muscles of the tongue. these all change the shape of the tongue: superior longitudinal m.
inferior longitudinal m.
transverse m.
vertical m.
extrinsic m. of the tongue. these all move the tongue.: genioglossus
styloglossus
palatoglossus
hyoglossus
are the teeth bone: teeth are bone like, but are not bone.
the way in which the teeth of the mandible and maxilla meet is ____: occlusion
malocclusion: any unusual alignmentof the mandible and maxilla
which type of tooth is most likely to cause a speech problem if it falls out: incisor
upper bondary of oral cavity and lower boundary of the nasal cavity: palate
parts of maxillae: has all of the upper teeth. and palatine (posterior 1/5) bones. marked by a midline raphe and has a curvature, or palatal vault
soft palate: velum. formst he most posterior part of the palate. it is a valve that is nrmally open (velum hanging down) and moves up and back for VELOPHARYNGEAL closure.
the center of the velum is marked by: the palatal aponeurosis
the uvual hangs from the center of the: velum
what happens in some children if the adenoids are removed: sometimes in children, closure is made with the velum against the adenoids. if the adenois are removed, then teh child may not be able to make velopharingeal closure
what is the sile most imp. articulation in terms of intelligibility: the movemnt of the velum for veopharyngeal closure
we need velopharynegeal closure in order to...: build pressure in the oral cavity
pressure is neccessary in order to produce...: fricatives and affricates
pharyngeal muscles may aid in: velopharyngeal closure...aslo active in swallowing
what is the first step in phonation: the vocal folds are brought toward each other by the adductor muscles (arytenoids and lateral cricoarytenoids)
as the vocal folds are brought together, the air way is constricted. this constriction: increases velocity of air through the glottis (assume that volume per unit tiime is constant)
the increase in velocity causes pressure perpendicular to airflow to: drop locally, in the area of the glottis
bernoulli effect: the process of increeased velocity decreasing transverse pressure
the pressure drop causes the vocal folds to: be further drawn together
the vocal folds being further drawn together...: further increases velocity of airflow
the vocal folds with eventually (a few milliseconds): meet and compress against one another(medial compression)
the vocal folds are held together by: adductor muscles
air pressure builds up below the glottis (subglottal pressure) because..: the force on the lungs from relaxation pressure and the muscles of expiration continues
at some point the subglottal pressure becomes stronger than the force exerted by the adductor muscles so the: airpressure blows the vocal folds up and apart , thus releasing air through the airway
as soon as the air is flowing....: the bernoulli effet comes into play again, and the cycle starts over
frontal eminence: (frontal bone) above each orbit and superciliary ridge
zygomatic process: temporal bone

cheek bone
occipital bones: back/underneath of head
foramen magnum: (occipital bone) the large orfice in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes to the cranial cavity and becomes continuous with the medulla oblongata
occiptal condyles: on each side of the foramen magnum by which the skull articulates with the atlas
styloid: (temporal bone) pointed bone process, especially the spine that projects from the base of the temporal bone
mastoid: (temporal bone) located at posterior portion of temporal bone that is situated behind ear and serves as a site of attachemtn
sigmoid sinus: (temporal bone) the s-shaped dural sinus lying on the mastoid process of the temp. bone
petrous portion: very dense/ hard. protect inner ear
cochlea: a spiral shaped cavity of the inner ear. contais nerve endings essential for hearing
auditory meatus: either of hte passages in the outter ear from the auricle to the tympanic membrane

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