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Benthic Sampling methds: -D-frame net
-Kick net
-RBPs (Rapid Bioassessment Protocols)
-Surber sampler (quantitative collections)
-Coring Devices (box correr for deep water)
-Benthic grabs (Ekman used in looser muddy sediments, freshwater; Ponar used for sand, gravel, denser packed sediments)
-Colonization Samplers (Hester-Dendy, Artificial Substrate Basket, Periphyton Sampler)
-Towed Epibenthic Saplers (Benthic Sled, Biological dredge, Otter trawl)
-Collection by Submersible (very deep sea)
Epifauna: - atop sediment, soft bottom or rocks, attached or free
-80% of larger zoobenthos, hard bottoms more diverse
Infauna: -live w/in sediment, mostly soft bottom
-mostly clams and polychaete worms
-burrow tubes for food scavaging and O2 supply
Epibenthos/ demersal animals: Live in association with seafloor but temporairily swim up into water (shrimp, prawns, cod, etc.)
Size classes of Benthos: 1. Macrofauna:animals retained by 1mm seive, largest animals including: starfish, mussels, corals, sponges
2. Meiofauna:0.45 to 1mm, commonly found in mud, includes small mollusks, worms, copepods
3. Microfauna:smaller than 0.45mm, mostly protozoa, include: ciliates, thecate ameoba, foraminifera)
RPD (Redox potential discontinuity): -oxygenated surface layer overlies anoxic muds
-RPD marks boundary between layers
Decay Process and POM viability: -C:N decreases with decay
-POM generally indigestable, thus associate microbes on POM main source of nutrition for deposit feeders
Benthic Feeding Mechanisms: 1. Deposit feeder (either eat at surface (high )2, more digestibility) or deeper in substrate
2. Suspension feeder (eat floating material)
3. Grazers (eat gorwing on rocks/ other surfaces)
4. Predators (regulate community structre)
5. Symbiosis (animal/algae; animal/bacteria)
6. DOM uptake (found in all soft bodies marine inverts.
DOM transport across membrane: -transported by cotransport, travels with Na which is moved in by faciliated difusion
-animal must pump Na out to maintain conc. gradient to continue cotransport (uses ATP)
-found using oubain which shuts down ATP->ADP + P
Nonselective deposit feeders: -Arenicola sp.
-ingest sediment, expell unused particles
-bring O2 into burrow through funnel into otherwise anoxic muds
Selective Deposit Feeders: 1. ex: Amphitrite sp.
-lays burrow w/ tenticle a surface
-takes small food particles along tenticles to mouth using cilia
-larger sediment paticles lost as passed over "humps" of tentacles
2. ex: Macoma sp.
-bivalve buried deep in sand
-extends lonh siphons to surface
-intake siphon covered with "screen" gills which filter sand particles out
-gills, 3 functions: current, O2 exchange, filtering
3. ex: Corophium volutator
-digs ditch, moves sediment past body
-ingests slower falling organic particles
Passive Suspension feeding: -rely on existing currents
- ex: anemones, corals, basket stars, hydriods, brittle stars -may or may not involve sieving
Active Suspension Feeding: - create current to draw food toards them
1. ex: parchment worm (creates current with modified peripoda, draws food into mucus sac
2. Bivalves
-generate water current with lateral cilia on gills
-U-lateral cilia beat against current to capture food particles
-Frontal cilia carry trapped particles to mouth
Barnacles: - can be active or passive dpending on environment
-can pulse tentacles
Benthic Herbivores/ grazers: 1. ex: chitons: use radula for grazing
2. ex: Urchins: use Artistole's lantern to scape algae or rip seaweed
3. ex: parrot fish: specialize mouth to scrape algae from rocks and corals
4. ex: Nereid polychaetes: tear apart sea lettuce
Benthic Predators: -Dog whelk (large gastropod)
-Portunid crab
Measuring Tides: 1. Tide Staff
2. Float and Stilling well
3. Sonar
4. Pressure
Astronomical Tides: caused by graviational attraction of objects in space (moon primarily, sun also)
Meterological tides: caused by weather
Hide Tide opposing moon: -cause by water inertia due to earth spinning, water continues outward as earth spins counter clockwise (to east)
-all water wants to travel to this point, moon's gravity prevents it
Types of daily tides: Semidiurnal: typical tide, 2 high, 2 low
Diurnal: water trapped, 1 high, 1 low
Mixed Tide: still semidiurnal, but 1 high, 1 low, 1 high low, 1 low high daily
Tides and lattitude: Range of tides greater at higher latitudes, minimized at low latitudes due to earth's tilt on axis
Littoral Zone: intertidal zone, art that is partially submerged/ exposed between spring high and low tides
Midlittoral zone: area between neap high and neap low, always partially submerged/ exposed daily
Intidal inhabitants: -cheifly marine rather than terrestrial
- species richness greater lower in intertidal
- upper intertidal most stressful
Physical Stresses on Intertidal: 1. Temp
2. Dessication
3. Reduced O2
4. Wave action
Dessication: gastropod adaptation: -seal shell with operculum
- use anaerobic metabolism
-keep constant supply of NAD to accept H ions from Krebs cycle to produce limited ATP
Dessication: limpet adaptation: - seal shell to substrate
-anaerobic metabolism: creates acids, use acid to create perfect hole on rock for tight sealing
- mucus trail to find "home scar" when tide recedes
Dessication: soft-bodies invertebrate adaptation: -contract, use crevices (last place to dry)
-cover body with mucus
Dessication: macroalgae: -fleshy algae (fucus sp.) can survive considerable drying
-less substantial algae (sea lettuce) can not - found lower in intertidal
Reduced O2: -ex: barnacles: gape slightly and use atmospheric O2 at surface
-ex: buried worms: use respiratory pigments
-hemoglobin (Fe), hemocyanin (Cu), and chlorocruorin (Cu)
Temperature: -color: white, reflects more light
-texture: bumps, give off more heat
Wave Action: -burrowing: razor clams, Donax sp.
-"Swash riding": Emertia sp., crab uses movement sediment by waves to stay where waves are breaking, moves up and down beach w/ waves
ex: Littorina nertoides: climbs rock until out of tidal zone, crawls into crevice
Beach Zonation: White: most terrestrial, only wet few times/ yr when storms and spring tides
Gray: upper edge of intertidal, upper portion wet 1-2 days every 2 weeks
Black: caused by dried algae, wet consistently w/ spring tides, dry during neap
Yellow: true intertidal, area between neap high and neap low
Lower PLatform: almost always submerged, exposed only during spring low
Species Zonation: -upper limit determined by tolerance to physical factors (temp, dessication, etc.)
-lower limit determined by biological factors (competition, predation)
Keystone Species: Top-down control: Large, dominant predator responsible for species diversity/ community structure
-Pisaster sp. in Coastal Washington studies by Paine
-only found if food web relatively simple, one top predator with only one or two below it
Environmental Effects of Aquaculture: 1. Biological Pollution
2. Feeder fish
3. Organic Pollution/ Eutrophication
4. Chemical Pollution
Biological Pollution: -release of farmed fish, their parasites or pathogens into water
-can swamp natural pops due to such consentrted large pops of farmed fish
-1/4 mill escaped salmon since mid 90's, competing w/ natural species (Atlantic Salmon)
-transgenic fish can: grow faster, parasite resistance, temp tolerance
Feeder Fishes: -wild caught fish used to make feed for farmed fish
-1lb feeder fish = 0.1 lb growth of eater fish
harvesting so many bait fish that wild pops have difficulty finding prey
Organic Pollution/ Eutrophication: -much of nutrients eaten by fish released into water
-Porphyra: used as biological filter downstream
Chemical Pollution: -pesticides, hormones, antibiotics, mineral, pigments, vitamins, anestetics
-few medicines used
Needed Improvements: -Increased regulation
-Protect native species
-Provide $$ for water quality improvements
-Fund research of sustainable production
-develop regulations regarding introduced species
-Develop siting/ permitting system for offshore cages
-Develop "organically grown" standards
-Develop guidelines for environmentally sound fish culture and inform public

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