Understanding Science Final
Terms
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- A method of identification that compares fragments of DNA
- DNA fingerprinting
- central portion of the cell containing all the DNA to run the cell
- nucleus
- small structures within the cell which produce energy, inherited through mother
- mitochondria
- the migration of molecules through a solution under the influence of electricity
- electrophoresis
- repeated sequences of base pairs varying from 20 to 100 base pairs long
- variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs)
- portions of the DNA not used to code genetic information
- introns
- portions of the DNA that contain the genetic information that determines an organism’s development
- exons
- the scientific application of the principles of heredity to perpetuate desirable qualities in the human race
- eugenics
- organisms that contain artificially inserted genes not acquired through pollination or breeding
- transgenic organisms
- microprojectile bombardment to shoot genes into target organism’s cells where some are incorporated into the DNA
- gene gun method
- uses a soil-dwelling bacteria that can insert its DNA into that of a plant
- Agrobacterium method
- Self-renewing, unspecialized cells that can differentiate into multiple cell types
- Stem cells
- to become specialized in form and function
- differentiate
- tightly packed cells that line the outside and inner cavities of our body whose function is to protect underlying tissue from injuries, pathogens, and drying out
- Epithelial tissue
- a disease-causing agents
- pathogen
- cells are widely separated by a noncellular matrix whose functions include binding organs together, supporting and protecting internal organs, filling spaces, producing blood cells, and storing fat
- Connective tissue
- allows for voluntary and involuntary movement
- Muscular tissue
- allows for sensory input, integration of data, and motor output
- Nervous tissue
- Derived from the inner part of a 4-5 day-old embryo
- Embyronic stem cells
- in an artificial environment outside the living organism
- in vitro
- have the potential to develop into any cell type
- pluripotent
- Undifferentiated cells that occur within differentiated tissue
- Adult stem cells
- have the potential to form a limited number of tissue types, depending on source
- Multipotent
- clone an individual to develop ESCs that are differentiated into needed organs
- therapeutic cloning
- two individuals produce offspring having a combination of genes inherited from both parents
- Sexual reproduction
- a single individual produces offspring genetically identical to itself
- Asexual reproduction
- manually separate an early embryo into individual cells that are allowed to develop into complete organisms
- Twinning
- produce a clone of an adult
- Somatic cell nuclear transfer
- nucleus is removed
- enucleation
- clone an individual and allow it to be born
- Reproductive cloning
- any disorder that affects the heart’s ability to function normally, most commonly a narrowing or blockage of the coronary arterie
- cardiovascular disease
- an interruption in blood supply to the brain
- Stroke
- abnormal concentration of lipids or lipoproteins in the blood
- dyslipidemia
- the heart loses the ability to pump blood efficiently
- congestive heart failure
- high blood pressure, generally considered 140/90
- Hypertension
- chest pain caused by inadequate blood flow through the coronary arteries
- angina pectoris
- a chronic disease where the body’s insulin doesn’t effectively control blood sugar levels
- type 2 diabetes
- the thyroid gland fails to produce enough thyroid hormones, causing mental and physical sluggishness
- hypothyroidism
- inflammation of the gallbladder
- cholecystitis
- deposit of uric acid in the joints, causing pain especially in the legs and feet
- gout
- a chronic disease causing deterioration of the joint cartilage and the formation of bone spurs
- Osteoarthritis
- an accumulation of incompletely developed follicles in the ovaries, characterized by irregular menstrual cycles, infertility and excess hair growth
- polycystic ovary syndrome
- episodes of stopped breathing during sleep which may lead to daytime drowsiness
- sleep apnea
- molecules containing both carbon and hydrogen
- organic compounds
- nutrients the body needs in large amounts
- macronutrients
- nutrients the body needs in small amounts
- micronutrients
- Function as short-term energy storage
- Carbohydrates
- functions include structure and movement, messengers, defense, transport, enzymes
- Proteins
- speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction
- enzymes
- contain all 20 types of amino acids
- complete protein sources
- lack some amino acids
- incomplete protein sources
- Function as an efficient, long-term energy storage molecule and in cellular structure
- Lipids
- will not dissolve in water
- Hydrophobic
- will dissolve in water
- Hydrophilic
- carbon molecules are considered “saturated†with hydrogen molecules
- Saturated fats
- carbon molecules share some double bonds so not “saturated†with hydrogen
- Unsaturated fats
- created by partially hydrogenating unsaturated fats to make them solid at room temperature
- Trans fat
- fatty deposits containing saturated fat and cholesterol
- plaque
- carries cholesterol from the liver to cells
- low density lipoproteins - LDLs
- carries cholesterol from the cells to the liver where it is converted to bile salts and eliminated from the body
- high density lipoproteins - HDLs
- Organic compounds the body needs for metabolic purposes but can’t manufacture in adequate amounts
- Vitamins
- Required elements in the diet
- Minerals
- body contains (more than) >5g of each
- Macrominerals
- body contains (less than) <5g of each
- Microminerals
- Unicellular to multicellular organisms that do not make their own food
- Fungi
- organisms that live on or within another organism without contributing to the survival of the host
- parasites
- unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms
- Bacteria
- A medication to treat or prevent a bacteria infection
- Antibiotics
- simple submicroscopic parasites that are unable to replicate without a host
- Viruses
- Single celled organisms containing a nucleus
- Protozoa
- multicellular worms with internal organs
- Helminthes
- A disease caused by the consumption of food or drink
- Food poisoning
- Autoimmune disease that destroys the cells that line nerves
- Guillain-Barre syndrome
- red blood cells are destroyed, damaging organs
- hemolytic uremic syndrome
- Quickly pass food through a radiation field to mutate the DNA of microorganisms
- Irradiation
- Any infectious agent used intentionally to inflict harm upon others
- Biological weapons
- High priority agents that health care systems should be prepared for
- Category A biological weapons
- Second highest priority agents
- Category B biological weapons
- Emerging pathogens that could be engineered for mass dissemination in the future
- Category C biological weapons
- Infection by Bacillus anthracis that occurs after skin contact with products from contaminated animals
- Cutaneous anthrax
- Infection by Bacillus anthracis that occurs after consumption of undercooked, contaminated meat
- Gastrointestinal anthrax
- Infection by Bacillus anthracis that occurs after very small particles suspended in the air are inhaled
- Inhalation anthrax
- infection by Caused by the Variola virus whose symptoms begin with fever, fatigue, muscle pain, vomiting
- Smallpox
- infection caused by the Yersinia pestis bacteria common to rodents whose symptoms include an infection of lymph nodes
- Bubonic plague
- infection caused by the Yersinia pestis bacteria common to rodents whose symptoms include bleeding into the skin and organs
- Systemic plague
- infection caused by the Yersinia pestis bacteria common to rodents whose symptoms include respiratory failure, shock
- Pneumonic plague
- A cellular disorder requiring a series of mutations within cellular DNA that results in the cells forming a tumor
- Cancer
- an accumulation of cancer cells
- tumor
- a tumor derived from epithelial cells
- carcinoma
- a tumor derived from muscle, fat, bone, cartilage, or other connective tissue
- sarcoma
- a cancer derived from white blood cells
- leukemia
- causes mutations
- mutagen
- cancer causing
- carcinogens
- removal of the growing tumor and some surrounding tissue
- Surgery
- the use of drugs to kill cancer cells
- Chemotherapy
- direct powerful beams of radiation into cancer cells
- Radiation therapy
- the removal of hormone-producing glands and consumption of drugs that interfere with the production or action of hormones
- Hormone therapy
- skin cancer that involves melanocytes
- Melanoma
- skin cancer that begins in the lowest layer of the skin
- basal cell carcinoma
- skin cancer that develops in upper layers of skin
- squamous cell carcinoma
- Non-native species which enter a new ecosystem
- Exotic species
- includes the species within a community plus the physical environment
- ecosystem
- a species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health
- invasive species
- feed on fish
- piscivores
- feed on plankton
- Planktivores
- a point in space and time at which gravitational forces cause matter to have infinite density and infinitesimal volume, and space and time become infinitely distorted
- singularity
- elementary, subatomic particles
- quarks
- a change in the observed frequency of a wave that occurs when the source and observer move relative to one another
- Doppler shift
- how many waves pass a given point in a given time
- frequency
- distance between adjacent peaks
- wavelength
- measure the slight changes in the EM spectrum of a star as the mass of a large planet orbiting the star slightly changes its velocity as the system moves through the galaxy
- Doppler spectroscopy
- observations of the periodic decrease in the light intensity of a star seen on Earth as a planet passes in front of its sun
- transits
- The differences of DNA are found in:
-
- number of base pairs
- arrangement of chromosomes
- order of base pairs - Individual identification
-
sequencing their base pair order
sequence small numbers of variable pieces - problems with sequencing base pair order of DNA fingerprinting
-
-unique code
-expensive and time consuming - problems with sequencing small numbers of variable pieces of DNA fingerprinting
-
-not necessarily unique
-cant tell if came from same/related/nonrelated person - DNA finger printing procedure
-
-Get DNA sample
-Extract DNA from the cell
-Amplify the DNA to make copies
-Cut DNA into pieces using enzymes
-Arrange the pieces by size using electrophoresis
-Mark the pieces with radioactive molecules
-Take a picture of the molecule arrangement
-Compare fingerprints - The Common source for DNA fingerprinting that uses variable number tandem repeats. It is inhereted from both parents and a combination of parental genes.
- Nuclear DNA (nDNA)
- May be used if DNA sample is old, degraded, or very small. It's more difficult to use than nDNA and is more time consuming. It can be used for a meternally related individual for fingerprint comparison.
- Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
- Uses for DNA fingerprinting
-
-maternity and paternity
-establish legal nationality
-biological parents
-ethnicity
-criminal investigation forensics
-ID of unknown
-Anthropology - Can be used only to establish maternity
- mtDNA (Mitochondrial DNA)
- Issues with DNA fingerprinting
-
-Uniqueness
-Inheritance
-Technicalities
-Small amounts of DNA
-Expensive and time consuming
-Civil liberties - plants and animals- not people
- Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
- limitations to GMOs
-
-organizations must be able to breed together
-not a specific genetic change - Methods of GMO
-
-gene splicing
-genetic engineering - Creating a GMO
-
-find gene that corresponds to the desired trait
-understand how gene works
-cut target DNA segment from original organism using enzyme scissors
-insert gene into target using gene gun method
-grow plants in a medium containing the herbicide or antibiotic corresponding to marker gene
-test new plant
-cross GMO w/ conventional crop varieties - Farmers biggest challenges
- Weed control
- A soil bacteria that produces an insecticide which doesnt impact mammals and birds
- Pest control
- Most GMOs
- herbicide tolerant or pest resistant
- bacterial insecticide gene was incorporated into these crops for pest control
- corn and cotton
- Reasons for GMOs
-
-Weed Control
-Pest Control
-Improves taste, nutrition or shelf life of plants - Future of GMO
-
-delayed ripening tomatoes
-salt tolerant tomatoes
-naturally decaffinated tea or coffee
-nicotine-free tabacco - Potential problems of GMOs
-
-could increase pest rates
-could produce new proteins that trigger allergies or produce toxins
-ethical issues (dangerous/morally wrong) - how are crops genetically modified to assit a farmer with insect pest control?
- bacterial insecticide gene was incorporated into crops
- how are crops genetically modified to assit a farmer with weed control?
- herbicide tolerant crops are genetically modified to be tolerant to a broad spectrum herbicide (not harmful to crops)
- What are the tissue types used in stem cells
-
-Epithelial
-Connective
-Muscular
-Nervous - Differences of embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells
-
-embryonic s.c. are from inner part of 4-5 day old embryos, is obtained from excess embryos created for in vitro, can be generate in large numbers, could form benign tumor if directly injected into organism
-ASC are rare and wont culture indefinitely, can be returned to undifferentiated state. they are multipotent and difficult to identify and isolate from tissue - types of reproduction
- sexual and asexual
- Types of cloning
-
-twinning
-reproductive cloning
-theraputic cloning
-Somatic cell nuclear transfer - Why an animal may be cloned
-
-to replicate GMOs reliably
-Reproduce valuable livestock more precisely than with selective breeding
-replicate endangered or extinct species - Problems with cloning
-
-very inefficient
-problems during pregnancy
-clones seem to age faster than normal
-clones are virtually identical to the donor - Uses of stem cells
-
-still energy in research and development
-treat cancer
-understand embryonic development
-treat new drugs
-transplantation research - Measures of obesity
-
- % body fat
- BMI
- waist size - Body mass index (BMI) equation
-
Weight (in kg)
--------------
height2 (in m)
25-29.9 indicates overweight 30 or more is obese - Causes of obesity
-
-Age
-Genetics
-Gender
-Physical inactivity
-consume more calories thank the body needs
-medications
-evironmental factors
-lifestyle behaviors
-psychological factors
-illness (depression) - impacts of obesity
-
-problems w/ cardiovascular system- stroke, high cholestroal, congestive heart failure, hypertension
-endocrine system (type 2 diabetes)
-digestive system
-skeletal system
-reproductive system
-urinary system - how to control weight
- regular exercise (any exercise at all!) and healthy diet
- why should you try to decrease the amount of fat consumed in your diet?
- it can lead to many health problems such as clogged arteries and stroke.
- The body needs
-
-large amounts of macronutrients (carbs, proteins)
-smaller amounts of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals)
-water - Types of pathogens
-
-Fungi
-Bacteria
-Viruses
-Antibiotics
-Protozoa
-Helminthes - develops because of genetic variations within a population
- antibiotic resistance
- causes of antibiotic resistance
-
-natural evolution
-inappropriate human use
-livestock use - symptoms of food poisioning
-
-flu like
-may affect nervous system
-can cause death - triggered 1 in every 1000 cases of food poisioning
- Guillain Barre Syndrome
- Rare form of food poisioning
- Botulism
- how to prevent food poisioning
-
wash hands
cook meat thoroughly
wash fruit and vegetables - How irradiation assists in prevention of food poisioning
- it mutates the DNA of microorganisms
- Problems with irradiation
-
slight increase of price
public concerns about radiation - cheap, easy to make, simple to conceal, produced anywhere, not easy to weaponize, divided into three categories
- Biological weapons
- Biological weapons
-
-anthrax
-botulism
-small pox
-plague
-viral hemorraghic fevers - Two common sources of Salmonella food poisioning
- eggs and raw meat
- Causes of cancer
-
-organic chemicals
-viruses - What are organic chemicals that cause cancer?
-
-foods
-hormones
-pollutants - what are the viruses that cause cancer?
-
-hepatitis B
-human papillomavirus
-epstein-Barr - Common Cancers
-
-Prostate (men)
-Breast (women)
-lung
-colon - Breast cancer treatment
-
-Surgery
-Chemotherapy
-Radiation therapy
-hormone therapy - Chemotherapy side effects
-
-vomiting and nausea
-hair loss
-anemia
-decreased clotting of blood
-increased infections
-mouth sores - Two major types of skin cancer
- Melanoma and nonmelanomas
- two types of nonmelanomas skin cancer
-
basal cell carcinoma
squamous cell carcinoma - treatments for skin cancer
-
surgery
cyrosurgery
laser surgery - Great Lakes
-
Huron
Ontario
Michigan
Erie
Superior - what are the largest and smallest great lakes?
-
largest- superior
smallest- ontario - how are exotic species introduced?
-
deliberate human intro
accidental human intro
migration - problems with exotic species
-
invasive species
lack of population controls
leads to extinction of native species - Native to Atlantic ocean and lake ontario, attack large fish, entered great lakes through welland canal, parasitic
- sea lamprey
- Problems with sea lamprey
- they contributed to the loss of most large piscivores
- Native to Atlantic Ocean, Planktivores, entered through welland canal
- Alewife
- Alewife Problems
- sensitive to changes in food availability
- types of Pacific Salmon
-
-Coho
-Brown Trout
-Pink Salmon
-Chinook - What Pacific Salmon do
-
-reduce alewife number
-provide commercial and recreational fishing - Efficient Planktivores, easy transport, small bottom dwelling clams
- Zebra Mussels
- Zebra mussel problems
-
-attach to hard surfaces
-form large colonies - A wetland plant, originally from Eurasia
- Purple Loosestrife
- Control of Purple loosestrife
- difficult to control, eradicate
- how to control exotic species
-
prevent their introduction
currently evaluating its effectiveness - Universe was created 15 billion years ago from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter in all directions
- Big Bang Theory
- Electromagnetic Spectrum categories
-
frequency
wavelength
radio
microwaves
infared
visible light
ultraviolent
x-rays
gamma rays