BIOL381 Animal Physiology Exam 1

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What advantage does homeostasis confer on animals that practice it?: Homeostasis allows animals to survive in stressful and varying environments.
FEEDBACK: Return of sensory information to a controller that controls a bodily variable
DISTURBANCE: An externally induced change to a variable in a controlled system
SENSOR: Receives output from a controlled system and funnels it to an amplifier
AMPLIFIER: Receives output data from a sensor and inverts the signal, then sends it to the controller (ex. amplifier receives a + (positive) signal, reverses it to a - (negative) signal, then sends it to the controller
ERROR SIGNAL: The output signal sent by a sensor to an amplifier that indicates the severity of a change to a controlled system (compared to a desired set point) via increases/decreases in the signal strength
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: Feedback involving the inversion of a sensor output signal by an amplifier; critical to maintaining homeostasis
POSITIVE FEEDBACK: Feedback in which the sensor output signal is not inverted by an amplifier, resulting in the controlled system change being reinforced and strengthened over time
What is a non-pathological example of positive feedback?: The rising phases of cycling events: vomiting, expulsion of a fetus from the uterus, swallowing
ANIMAL WELFARE: The humane treatment of animals that looks after their comfort and well-being
ANIMAL RIGHTS: Concept that animals have intrinsic rights to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness"
OSMOREGULATOR: Maintains internal ion concentrations at a set point despite external concentrations
OXYREGULATOR: Maintains internal oxygen concentration as oxygen availability falls
What is an example of an oxyregulator?: Crayfish, mollusks
CONFORMER: Organism that does not maintain homeostasis with respect to one or more internal variables that are influenced by the environment
What is an example of an osmoconformer?: Starfish
What is an example of an oxyconformer?: Annelid worms
ACCLIMITIZATION: Animal responses to environmental condition change with season and stage of life
ACCLIMATION: Animal response to environmental condition change induced by a researcher
What are some examples of bodily variables that can be regulated?: Temperature, H2O percent, dissolved solute concentrations, O2 concentrations
ZONE OF STABILITY: Range of environmental values for a given variable that are most complimentary to homeostatic efforts to maintain that variable at its set point
WILLIAM HARVEY: England, 1500s:

- Blood flows unidirectionally out of the heart under pressure exerted by the heart.
- Blood then circulates through blood vessels and returns to the heart, completing a round trip.
- Prior belief: blood sloshes back and forth between vessels.
CLAUDE BERNARD: 1800s, France:

- Measured body fluids in mammals to determine: temperature, volume, composition, concentrations of constituents
CONSTITUENT CONCENTRATION (equation): C = constituent amount/volume of fluid when dissolved
ENERGY: Capacity to do work
What 4 things do cells require from their environment?: 1. C, N and H from nutrient molecules
2. O2 from air/water
3. Energy from nutrient molecules (energy in a form cells can use to perform work)
4. Heat
What is a triglyceride without its 18-Carbon chains?: Fatty acid
What is the central molecule of triglyceride?: Glycerol (C3O3)
What makes up a triglyceride?: Glycerol and one or more 18-Carbon chains
CONVECTIVE HEATING: Deriving heat from surrounding fluid
RADIATIVE HEATING: Deriving heat directly from the source
What is the classic experiment demonstrating how the molecular building blocks of life arose spontaneously on the primordial Earth?: Miller, Stanley (1953) - Peptides, amino acids and nucleic acids (molecules essential to primitive life) appear when lightning-like electric discharges are performed on an experimental atmosphere of methane, ammonia and water.
How is the reactivity of a given atom determined?: By the number of electrons in the outermost shell
Why are Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen the most common elements in organic molecules?: They are the only one- and two-shell elements that form strong covalent bonds (sharing 3, 1 and 2 electrons respectively).
The "dipole" nature of H2O causes it to have what physical/chemical properties?: - Aligns with electrostatic fields.
- High dipole movement: 4.8 debyes
- Most important chemical feature: capable of making Hydrogen bonds between H+ of one H2O and the O of neighboring H2O
- Angle between 2 covalently bonded water molecules is 105 degrees, creating a tetrahedral lattice
Why are weak acids used in buffering systems?: Weak acids dissociate only slightly, ensuring a large reserve of A-. New H+ ions combine with A- to reform HA, while OH- can combine with H+ to form H2O.
MOLALITY (m): Number of moles of solute in 1000g of solvent
MOLARITY (M): Number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of solution
What is the weight of 1 mole CO2 in grams?: 44g
Why do only some liquids conduct electricity?: Conduction in liquids is only supported by the presence of cations (+) and anions (-).
How many ions flow past a point (amps) in a current of 1 mA?: 0.001 amps (ions/sec)
How does attraction vary between a monopole binding site and a multipolar binding site with respect to a cation?: When a binding site is multipolar, attraction falls more rapidly with distance. When a monopole cation carrying a full charge is presented with a binding site, the a exponent of d^a is equal to 1.
AMPHOTERIC: Can function as an acid or a base (ex. H2O)
Describe the 4 levels of structure in a protein.: PRIMARY - Specific linear sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide.
SECONDARY - Local organization of polypeptide chain parts
TERTIARY - Foldings of the polypeptide chain to form globular or rod-like molecules
QUARTERNARY - Joinings of 2+ polypeptide chains to from dimers
Why does cysteine commonly inhibit enzyme reactions?: Two cysteine residues can perform a sulfhydryl group through a disulfide (S-S bond). This highly reactive group often renders enzyme binding sites catalytically inoperative.
Why do proteins denature at high temperatures?: QUATERNARY: Protein sub-units dissociate
TERTIARY: Covalent interactions, noncovalent dipole-dipole interactions, and van der Waals interactions are disrupted
SECONDARY: Proteins lose repeating patterns and adopt random coil patterns
PRIMARY: No change
Do living organisms violate the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics with their consistently low entropy?: No. Living organisms do not represent closed systems-- they maintain low entropy (disorder) at the expense of their surrounding environment, which gains disorder.
At a particular temperature, will delta-S > delta-H be endergonic or exergonic?: delta-S = change in entropy
delta-H = change in heat

change in entropy > change in heat

Endergonic (exergonic reactions give off heat)
When does an endergonic reaction proceed?: When enough energy has been absorbed from the environment
What is delta-G for a system at equilibrium?: delta-G = change in Gibbs Free Energy

System at equilibrium delta-G = 0 (there is no change in GFE)
How does ATP supply energy to endergonic reactions?: ATP decomposes into ADP + P, releasing energy for use in the reaction.
COUPLED REACTIONS: Endergonic reactions or transport processes are linked to exergonic reactions that provide a surplus of energy
Why does an increase in temperature increase the rate of reaction?: Heat causes the molecules involved in the reaction to move faster (remember 0 Kelvin temperature = no molecule movement)
How are enzymatic reactions influenced by temperature?: Generally, enzymatic reactions have a rate increase with temperature. However, different enzymes also denature at higher temperatures, and at that point will become less effective, then inoperative.
HIGH-ENERGY PHOSPHATE BONDS: Product of breaking down carbohydrates such as sugar (by glycolysis) or triglycerides; located in special molecules made in cells by concentrating energy derived from breaking covalent bonds in nutrient molecules
What 3 substances are broken down by glycolysis?: Phosphoenolypyruvate
1,3-Diphosphoglycerate
Glucose 1-phosphate
When carbohydrates are broken down by glycolysis, are the products the end products or intermediates?: Intermediates - the products must directly/indirectly transfer phosphate bond energy to the covalent bonds of ATP
ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; provides energy for all cell processes
How does ATP break itself down for energy?: It typically only breaks one Phosphate bond, making ADP + P
CALORIE: Energy required to raise 1g water by 1 degree Celsius
MOLE: Amount of substance containing 6.02 x 10^23 molecules
ATP is not the greatest energy in a living system, but it is the most _______.: accessible
ATP synthesis during cellular respiration (equation): ADP + P --> respiration + O2 + fuel ---> ATP OR CO2 + H2O (byproducts)
What are 3 types of work ATP can be used for?: Biosynthesis
Mechanical work
Transport work
CATABOLISM: Breakdown of large molecules into small ones, releasing covalent bond energy
ANABOLISM: Synthesis of large molecules from small ones
What are the products of the catabolism of nutrient molecules used for?: Sources of high-energy phosphate bonds for ADP, creating ATP
Catabolism always requires ___ and always has ___ as a byproduct.: O2, CO2
What happens to nonpolar molecules like O2 and CO2 when they come in contact with the cell membrane?: Dissolve readily in cell membrane lipids
Cellular respiration can be measured as an exchange between O2 and ____.: CO2
TRUE/FALSE: In cellular respiration, O2 intake and CO2 output are always equal.: FALSE
Where are 2 places ATP is created in mitochondria?: Cytosol, mitochondrial center (at the site of respiration)
CRISTAE: Inner mitochondrial membrane near the site of respiration
ATP Production in cell cytosol (equation): Polysaccharides ---> 5- and 6-Carbon sugars ---> 3-Carbon sugars ---> ATP OR pyruvate ---> goes inside mitochondria OR lactate
STARCH: Chain of individual glucose molecules bound covalently -- broken down by digestion
DIGESTION: Breakdown of starches that releases individual glucose molecules into the blood
What happens to the energy of starch bonds (glucose-glucose) during digestion?: Released as heat
ANAEROBIC: No O2 used
GLYCOLYSIS: Breakdown of 5- and 6-Carbon sugars into 3-Carbon sugars
NAD: Electron-accepting coenzyme that captures energy from glycolytic substrates
GLYCOLYTIC SUBSTRATES: 5- and 6-Carbon sugars that are transformed into 3-Carbon sugars by glycolysis
REDUCTION: Adding an electron to a molecule (ex. NAD is reduced to NADH)
OXIDATION: Removing an electron from a molecule (ex. glycolytic substrates are oxidized)
REDOX PAIR: Paired oxidation and reduction reactions
SUBSTRATE PHOSPHORYLATION: Phosphorylation of ADP to produce ATP while the glycolytic substrate is being transformed
What is the name of the process that creates ATP inside the mitochondria?: Kreb Cycle
KREB CYCLE: Pyruvate: 1. Pyruvate becomes lactate OR CO2 OR has a Carbon removed and Coenzyme A added to form acetyl CoA (2C remaining)
KREB CYCLE: Acetyl CoA: 2. Combines with OAA to form CA (citric acid citrate) with 6C
KREB CYCLE: CA (citric acid citrate): 3. 2C removed, breaking down CA into 2CO2s, and recycling CA itself to OAA (producing one more CO2, for 3 total CO2)
KREB CYCLE: Recycling of citric acid: 4. Citric acid is transformed to yield new electrons captured by NAD and the secondary electron acceptor FAD
KREB CYCLE: Recycled citric acid meets H+: 5. H+ addition leads to transport of energy to the electron transport chain
KREB CYCLE: Electron Transport Chain (3 products): 6. NADH from cytosol glycolysis and NADH/FADH from Kreb Cycle are oxidized, recycling NAD and FAD, ATP is produced, and H2O is produced where O2 is added
In the Kreb Cycle, H2O acts as what?: Terminal electron acceptor; H2O gathers e/p removed from NADH and FADH that combine with O2, as O2 takes up energy-poor e
When electrons are removed from NADH and FADH (yielding NAD and FAD), where does the energy go?: Some goes to ATP, most released as heat
How many moles of ATP are produced per 1 mole of NADH?: 3 moles ATP per 1 mole NADH
How many moles of ATP are produced per 1 mole of FADH?: 2 moles ATP per 1 mole FADH (there is only 1 FADH per cycle, so only 2 moles ATP per pyruvate)
How many moles of ATP are produced from 1 mole of pyruvate?: 2 moles ATP per 1 mole pyruvate
How many moles of H2O are produced per Kreb cycle?: 3 H2O per cycle
METABOLIC WATER: Water produced during the Kreb cycle; relied upon by desert animals
ANOXIA: No O2 in cell, cell cannot produce ATP and eventually dies; drowning, CO poisoning cause this
Why does CO poisoning cause anoxia?: CO bonds with O2-carrying molecule in the blood
STOICHIOMETRY: Glycolysis: 1 mole glucose catabolized (6C)
2 moles pyruvate produces (3C each)
STOICHIOMETRY: Respiration: 3 moles O2 required
1 mole pyruvate catabolized
3 moles CO2 produced
3 moles H2O produced
STOICHIOMETRY: Metabolism of 1 Mole Glucose: Requires: 6 moles O2
Requires: 2 turns of Kreb cycle
Products: 6 CO2 and 6 H2O
Metabolism of 1 mole of glucose (equation): C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O
How much energy is released by the complete catabolism of 1 mol glucose?: 686 kcal, only 288 kcal captured (38.7%) and remainder released as heat
What is an example of anaerobic metabolism?: Pyruvate + NADH ---> Lactate + NAD (no oxygen used)
TRUE/FALSE: Some animals do not use mitochondria and do not require O2.: TRUE

But only 2 moles of ATP are earned per 1 mole glucose (1/19 as efficient as aerobic metabolism)

Some organisms use this as an anoxia failsafe.
LDH: Lactic Acid Dehydrogenase; catalyst to the pyruvate --> lactate reaction that applies in both directions
What happens regardless of whether glucose is transformed for mitochondrial use OR glucose is transformed into lactate?: NADH recycles into NAD
What process causes oxygen debt?: Lactate production by cells producing pyruvate from sugar
How is oxygen debt repaid?: Lactate is broken down in the blood by the liver, returning O2
Why does the liver remove lactate?: Prevents blood/tissues from becoming too acidic
Permits lactate conversion to pyruvate (and then to sugar)
GLYCOGEN: Sugar from pyruvate that is stored by the liver
GLUCOGENESIS: Conversion of lactate to pyruvate to glycogen (sugar)
How can the liver maintain blood sugar homeostasis?: Breaks glucose off of glycogen molecules
Besides the liver, what other tissue removes lactate from the blood? Why?: Muscle removes lactate and uses the resulting glycogen to fuel contraction
BASAL METABOLIC RATE: Rate of energy use at rest (no digestion) in nonstressful temps in kcal/hour
When does O2 debt occur between rest and exercise?: Exercise creates energy need; O2 debt occurs as anaerobic respiration supplies energy while aerobic respiration lags
What are some reasons for the lag in energy produced by aerobic respiration?: O2 cannot be abosrbed into the blood quickly enough and lags the electron transport chain
Blood flow is not fast enough when the animal starts at rest
Heart/Respiratory activity takes time to increase
What are 2 lactate steps of anaerobic metabolism? What are 2 ways the body reacts to anaerobic metabolism and oxygen debt?: 1. Cells produce lactic acid from pyruvic acid (catalyzed by LDH).
2. Lactate leaves cells and dissolves in blood.

----

1. Some cells absorb blood lactate and convert it back to pyruvic acid
2. Gluconeogenesis leads to glycogen storage
Removal of lactate from the blood requires ____ _____ because ____ is required to produce glucose and glycogen.: aerobic metabolism, ATP
What happens related to O2 debt at the end of exercise?: O2 use remains elevated until all blood lactate is removed
TRUE/FALSE: The Rate of O2 Uptake is equivalent to the Rate of Energy Use.: TRUE
SACCHARIDES (general formula): CnH2nOn

If n = 6, C6H12O6 (glucose)
HEXOSES: All compounds with the formula C6H12O6
What is the primary fuel molecule?: Glucose
What are sugar names based on?: How many C they have.

3 = triose
5 = pentose
6 = hexose
What are saccharide names based on?: How many sugars they have linked together

0 = mono
2 = di
3+ = poly
What are 2 characteristics of lipids (triglycerides)?: 1. Nonpolar
2. Insoluble in H2O
Fatty Acids have 3 "R"s connected to them. What does an "R" represent?: 16-18 Carbon molecule chain
SATURATED FATTY ACID: When H atoms are attached to all available C
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID: When H are removed and Cs double-bond

More double bonds = polysaturated fatty acid
DIGESTION (general formula): Glucose + 3H2O ---> glycerol + fatty acids
ALPHA-AMINO ACIDS (general structure): COOH (carboxyl group)
|
(amino group)NH2--C--H
|
R
(one of 20 residues)
In an alpha-amino acid, what is "R"?: One of 20 different amino acid residues
PEPTIDE BOND: Connects amino group (NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (COOH) of another amino acid
TRUE/FALSE: A tetrapeptide can have a different "R" on each of its individual amino acid groups.: TRUE
What is the least accurate method of measuring metabolism?: Calorimetry

Direct: Measure heat production
Indirect: Difference between calories in food eaten + calories in waste excreted
RESPIROMETRY: Exploits stoichiometry of metabolic summary reactions (amount of O2 used per gram metabolized) to measure metabolism
What are the respiratory quotients (RQs) for carbohydrates, proteins and fats?: Carbohydrates = 6/6 = 1
Proteins = 0.80
Fats = 102/145 = 0.71
How much energy is gained from metabolizing 1 gram of carbohydrates, proteins and fats?: Carbohydrates = 17 kJ/gram
Proteins = 17 kJ/gram
Fats = 39 kJ/gram
Convert 1 kJ into joules and calories.: 1 kJ = 1000 joules = 239 calories
Convert 1 calorie into Joules.: 1 calorie = 4.18 J
1 J = 0.239 calories
Convert 1000 mL H2O into kg and liters.: 1000 mL H2O = 1 kg = 1 L
Why is it difficult to write a summary reaction for proteins?: Because proteins contain N, which animals also make as a metabolic byproduct and excrete as urea and other compounds
When proteins are digested, where does the energy come from?: Proteins are broken down into amino acids which are broken down into energy
How much O2 is used to metabolize 1 mole of carboyhdrates, proteins and fats?: Carbohydrates = 6 moles O2 per 1 mole carbohydrate
Proteins = N/A
Fats = 72.5 moles O2 per 1 mole fats
Rate of O2 uptake can only be counted as energy for which type of respiration?: Aerobic
What is the heat production per gram of carbohydrates, proteins and fats?: Carb = 17.1 kJ/gram
Prot = 17.6 kJ/gram
Fat = 38.9 kJ/gram
Why is heat production a useful measurement in determining metabolism?: Eventually all energy (even that used to create glucose) is released from the body as heat
What are 4 occasions when heat is released?: 1. Breakdown of molecules that used energy for their synthesis
2. Breakdown of fuel molecules (40% captured for ATP)
3. ATP use by cells
4. ATP use for work
If you have glucose fuel, and the energy used is 21 kJ/Liter O2 consumed, and 5L O2 is consumed in 1 minute, what is the energy use rate?: 21 kJ/L O2 X 5L O2/1 min

21 kJ X 5/1 min

105 kJ/min
If RQ = 0.85 (halfway between 1.0-carbs and 0.71-fats), how can the fuel type be calculated?: Collect urine sample to find out # of amino acids and subtract from 50/50 carb/fat ratio, but general animals do not spend protein making ATP

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