Exam 2 - Biology
Terms
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- What is Population Genetics?
- The study of change in allele frequency in a population through time
- Allele freq. and gentotype freq. will remain constant if...
-
1. No natural selection
2. No mutation
3. Random mating
4. No differential migration (no gene flow)
5. Large population (no genetic drift or random genetic drift) - Three things dealing with population size
-
1. Founder effect
2. Bottleneck effect
3. Genetic drift - Causes of variability
-
Mutation
Genetic recombination (cross over)
Sexual recombination
Migration (gene flow) - Natural Selection
-
*Differences in mortality and reproduction lead to difference in the proportion of alleles passing to the next generation
*Individuals w/ certain heritable traits tend to produce more surviving offspring than do individuals w/o those traits - Sucess of an organism judged in two ways
-
Absolute = will genome work/can you survive
Relative = is genome best available/ new organism arrives that is better - Selection against dominant trait leads to
- Rapid elimination of the trait
- Calculating fitness invovles..
- Comparing sucess of the favored allele to that of the unfavored allele
- Seleciton against recessive trait leads to
-
slow removal of allele...Aa hides allele
Incomplete or co-dominance then faster - Neutralism
- no interacitons producing affects
- Mutualism
-
+ +
lichens
termintes - Competition
- - -
- Predation
- + -
- Parasitism
- + -
- Commensalism
-
+ null
barnacles on whales - Ammensalism
-
- 0
red tides - Strategies for competition
-
Scramble - same resource at different times
Contest competition - same resource same time - Results of Competition
-
1. One species wins/ other extinct
2. Co-exist shared habitat
a. Shifting advantages
b. Populations maintained below competitive levels
c. Resource partitioning -
What is Gause's principle?
Also called...? -
Complete competitors cannot co-exist; one will always have a slight advantage
Competitive exclusion principle - Most common types of parasites
-
Worms
Viruses
Bacteria - How do parasites affect host
-
Consume Engergy
Destroy cells
Obsruct function of organs
Produce toxins - Results of parasitism
-
Kill host
Make host sick and therefore easier for predators to catch and easier for parasites to infect
Change behavior of host (cough, sneeze) - What is identiy switching and what is its purpose?
- mutation so that immune system cannot recognize it
- Prey switching - name two predators and which one can involve in prey switching
-
Specialized cannot
Generalized can - What is a secondary food source refered to as
- Buffer species
- Male and female look different?
- Sexual Dimorphism
- What has the largest sperm in the world
- Fruit flys
-
What is sexual selection?
What are two types? -
Competition among individuals of the same sex for reproductive success
Male competition -> breeding rights
Female choice -> choosing - How do sexual and natural selection differ?
-
SS - battle for reproductive rights
NS - battle for survival - Types of Male Competition
-
Fighting
Threat Displays
Sperm Competition
Sperm Removal
Male guard female laying eggs - The larger the testes...
- the more sperm produced, the more polygomous the species
- What do humans rate as most important in mate choice
-
Kindness and understanding
Intelligence - Which species is less discriminating and why?
-
Males are less discriminating because they have a low cost of reproduction
Females have high parental investment - What is runaway selection
-
Describe traits w/o apparant survival value
Female choose male w/ fancy tail, son inherit trait, daughter inherit tendency to select trait - How are mate preferences developed?
-
learned...ie turkeys
genetic ie. platyfish - What is kin selection?
- A form of natural selection that favors traits that inc. survival or reproduction of an individual's kin at the expense of an individual
- Inclusive fitness
- sum of the reproductive success of individuals sharing a genotype
- How many cousins do you have to save to save yourself
- 8
- Individual fitness
-
Determined by the number of an individuals offspring
Number of alleles you leave behind - What is special about Social insects
-
Queen can control whether she fertilizes an egg or not
If she doesn't it becomes a male
Workers are more closely related to each other than they are their mother - Typological species
- Each kind of organism is fixed and immutable and can be represented by an ideal individual, the type specimen
- Biological definition of a species
- Reproductively isolated group of actually interbreeding natural populations that produce fertile offspring
- Sympatric
- Inhabit some region of overlap
- Allopatric
- Inhabit different regions
- Problems of Identifying species
-
Sibling species (Incipient)
Polymorphic species (ie Homo sapiens)
Asexual species
Fossil species - Prezygotic barriers
-
Ecological Barriers (ie. thermic lines) (habitat)
Behavioral barriers (different courtship displays)
Temporal isolation (butterflies reproduce at different times)
Mechanical barriers
Gametic barriers (egg & sperm incompatible) - Postzygotic barriers
-
Hybrid inviability (fertilize but zygote dies)
Hybrid sterility - hybrid cant reproduce
Hybrid Breakdown - F1 can reproduce but F2 defective - Vicariance
- Physical splitting of habitat
- Allopatric speciation
- Splitting due to geographic separation
- Sympatric speciation
- Speciation that occurs without physical isolation (soapberry bug)
- Mechanisms for sympatric speciation
-
Instantaneous speciation
Mutation not probable
Polypoidy
Autopolyploidy & Allopolyploidy
Gradual Speciation - K, P, C, O, F, G, -->
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Biological Species
Incipient Speices
Race or Breed or Variety
Ancestral Population - Where in Taxonomy can interbreeding occur
-
Incipient Species
Race or Breed or Vareity
Ancestral population - Adaptation
- Unique features of an organism which are specializations for their environment
- Difficulties w/ Intelligent Design
-
Organisms aren't perfect
Vestigal organs
Embryological problems (human tails)
Philosophical difficulties
Theological Argument
Political legal argument
More Scientific arguments - Divergent Evolution
- Populations becoming progressively distint the longer they have been in separate gene pools
- Adaptive Radiation
- Many species with a common ancestor specializing for different life styles
- ___ structures result from adaptive radiation
- Homologous
- Convergent Evolution
- Distantly related species independently evolve similar structures
- Homologous structures:
-
Common basic Design
Common embryology
Common ancestor which had original design - Analogous structures:
-
Common fxn
Different basic design
Different embryology
"Design" not from common ancestor - Adaptation is limited by
-
Genetic variation
Compromises in natural selection
Certain adaptation preclude others (Size vs. Wings) - In order for adapataion to occur, all steps must have ____ over previous steps
- Selective advantage
- Not all specializations are adaptations for a given environment because:
-
Alternative solutions occur
Genetic drift can occur
Pleiotropy can occur
Sexual seleciton can occur
Vestigial organs may exist -
Two views of evolution:
Time vs. Differentiation -
Phyletic gradualism
Punctuated equilibrium - Characterisitcs of life
-
Cellular organization
Reproduction
Growth
Homeostasis
Sensitivity (respond to stimuli) -
When did Big Bang happen
what happened -
13 BYA
All matter and energy supercondensed and then a cataclismic explosion - What elements formed first and second
- H, then He
- Percent elements today
- 98% H 7.1% He .1% other
- When did solar system form
- 4.6 Ga
- Layers of earth
- Core, outer core, mantel, upper mantle, crust
-
Oldest rocks
Where
What -
4.4 BYA
Jack Hills Zircons, Australia -
First fossils
When -
Blue-green bacteria realted to stromatolites
3.5 BYA -
Oldest chemical fossils
Found where -
Greenland, 3.8 Ga
Carbon - Three Hypothesis on the origin
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Spore Theory (panspermia)
Spontaneous generation
Primary Abiogenesis - What two scientists are involved with testing spontanteous generation
-
Pasteur
Spalanzini -
What is primary Abiogenesis
Who proposed it - Life came from inorganic chemicals (Oparin and Haldane)
- Six steps of primary abiogenesis
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Chemical evolution
1. Inorganic chemicals
2. organic chemicals
3. Chemical rxns
Biological evolution
4. Reproducing molecules
5. Cells
6. Multicellular organisms - Who was responsible for the Spark-Discharge Experiment
- Miller and Urey
-
Simple sugars produce
Amino Acids
Nucleotides
Glycerol and fatty acids -
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Lipids - Polymerization can be accomplished by
-
Evaporation
Freezing
Heating
Adsorption onto minerals and clays w/ catalytic properties - Coacervates
-
Colloidal drops of organic materials in soln
(Oparin) -
Colloidal drops of organic materials in soln
(Oparin) - Coacervates
- Which came first RNA or DNA
- RNA
- Properties of coacervates
-
"Feeding"
Size of small cell
Membrane
Add enzymes -> you get molecular rxns
Growth and division - When were viruses discovered
- late 1800's
- Size of virus
- Smaller than bacteria
- Coat of virus
- Capsid (protein coat)
- What percent of diseases in US are caused by viruses
- 60%
- What are some positive uses of viruses?
-
Used to inject new genes into plants & animals - genetic engineering
Phage therapy to attack bacterial infections - Characteristics used to classify viruses (seven)
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1. Type of nucleic acid
2. Single or Double stranded
3. Shape of virus
4. Number of capsomeres making up capsid
5. Naked or w/ envelope
6. Size of virus particle
7. Site of reproduction (cytoplasm or nucleus) - Lytic Life Cycle
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1. Attachment
2. Penetration
3. Replication
4. Assembly
5. Release - Lysogenic Life Cycle
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1. Attachment
2. Penetration
3. Integration
4. Replication
5. Lytic -
Three major ways viruses enter host cell
What kind of cell for. -
Injection (bacterial cells)
Endocytosis (Animal viruses)
Fusion (envelope viruses in animals, i.e. herpes, HIV) - Ways viruses escape
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Bursting
Budding - Transformation
- DNA --> via water --> Host
- Transduction
- Virus carries host DNA along w/ its own to another host cell
- Virus origin
-
First form of life
Escaped genes hypothesis - Retro viruses
- RNA make DNA
-
HIV stands for
AIDS stands for -
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome - HIV infects what and does what w/ them
- Macrophages and T cells and destroys them
- Which HIV causes most problems
- HIV-1
- What blocks reverse transcriptase
- AZT
- Properties of Prokaryotes
-
Single Cells
No nuclear membrane
Single circular membrane
No organelles such as mitochonria, choroplasts, or internal membranse
Plasmids - DNA chunks - Monera originated in what kind of environment
- Anaerobic
- Name the exremophiles and their kingdom
-
Thermophiles
Halophiles
Methanogens -
Reproduction in Prokaryotes
Describe -
Binary fission
Conjugation (2 bacteria transmit plasmid via pilus) - Variability in Monera develop via
-
Mutation
Conjugation
Transformation
Transduction - Fermentation
- Glucose (6c) -> 2 ATP and 2 Pyruvic Acid(3c) -> Alcohol (2c) Acetic acid (2c) Pyruvic Acid (3c) lactic acid (3c) Krebs cycle (2c)
- Notes on Fermentation
-
Only small amt NRG released
Not complete breakdown of organic matter
Occurs in cytoplasm
No oxygen used - Chemosynthesis
- Using inorganic chem. rxn. to generate NRG...need Oxygen
- Photosynthesis in plants eqn.
- Water + CO2 -->(light) C6H12O6 + O2 + ATP
- In Blue-Green bacteria chlorophyll a is where
- On internal membranes in cytoplasm
-
Green & Purple bacteria have what chlorophyll
Eqn. for photosynthesis
How many photosystems
What is source of H and electrons -
Bacteriochlorophyll
H2S + CO2 --> (sun) Sugar + dec S + ATP
1
H2S - When was world anaerobic
- 4.6 BYA
- Anaerobic vs. aerobic photosystems
-
aerobic - 2
anaerobic - 1 - When did Aerobic photosynthesis evolve
- 3.5 BYA
-
Aerobic world began when?
What did this mean? -
2.3 BYA
Kreb's cycle evolved, ozone layer developed, land could be occupied - Kindgom protista are the first...
- eukaryotes
- Three major groups of eukaryotes
-
Animal-like protista = protozoa
Fungal like protista = lack chloroplasts, produce spores, heterotrophic (Slime Molds)
Plant-like protista = unicellular algae (have chloroplasts, photosyntheic, classified by pigments) - Four major groups of Animal-like protista
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Flagellates
Ciliates
Amoeba
Sporozoa (lack movement) -
Type of flagellate
Flagella is _____ to that of bacteria -
Zooflagellate
Analogous, remember 9 + 2 structure - Cilia relation to flagella...
- Closely related, more elaborate organelles
-
Amoeba
Types of shells and example species -
Naked
Silicon --> Radiolarians
Calcium Carbonate --> Foraminiferans - How are protozoa related to multi-celluar animals.
- Choanoflagellates are inside Cnidaria
- Characteristics of protoflagellates
- Nuclear membrane, organelle, mitosis, heterotrophism, 9 + 2 flagellum
- Phytoflagellates are
- Single-celled algae
- Three major groups of phytoflagellates
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Dinoflagellates
Diatoms
Euglenas - Two hypothesis of eukaryotic evolution
-
Membrane infolding
Endosymbiotic hypothesis - What organelles arose from membrane infolding
-
Mitchondria
Nuclear membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Chloroplasts - Similarities between bacteria and mitochondria and chloroplasts
-
1. Binary fission
2. Size
3. Single circular naked DNA
4. Same size ribosomes (small)
5. Protein synthesis inhibited by antibodies
6. Enzymes for synthesis of DNA, RNA, Protein similar
7. Electron transport system in walls of the structure
8. Chloroplast ribosomes + Bacterial ribosomes --> Hybrid ribosomes that fxn normally
9. Mutualism is very common in bacteria + Protista - Species w/ bacteria in/on it and spirochetes on it
- Myotricha paradoxa
- Red algae help build
-
Reefs
Coraline algae secrete calcium carbonate - Type of mutualisitc green algae
-
Zoochlorellae
in hydra -
What are lichens?
Typically what division -
Mutualistic association between algae and fugi
Ascomycota - How do we characterize plants?
-
Pigments
Presence or absence of vascular tissue
Gametogangia
Embryos
Seeds
Life Cycles -
Xylem do what
Located whereHow many directions -
Carry water and minerals, main for water!
Inside
One way -
Phloem do what
Located where
How many directions -
Carry water and sugar, mainly sugar
Outside
Two way - What does gametogagia mean
- Gamete producing organs
- Seeds consist of
- Embyro + Seed Coat + Food source
- Who has naked seeds
- Gymnosperms
- Who has seeds in flowers
- Angiosperms
-
List evidence that algea are ancestors of land plants
8 -
Ch. a & b
True starch as photosynthetic end product
Starch grains inside chloroplasts
Whiplash flagella
Diverse life cycles and reproduciton
Asexual and sexual phases
Haploid and diploid phases
Unicellular and multicellular species -
Closest ancestor to land plants?
Earliest tracheophyte? -
Chara
Club mosses - Early tracheophytes have..
- sporangia
- First land plants evolved when
- 480 MYA
- First fossils are of...
- tracheophytes
- What are two selective advantages for living on land?
-
Less competition for light and nutrients
Less predation -
4 problems w/ new evironment
(plants) -
Physical support
Water loss and availability
Reproducition...need water
Temp fluctuations - How do plants deal with physical support?
-
Internal support
Roots anchor plants in soil and acquire nutrients and water
Stems: turgor pressure in cells, lignin as wood - How do plants deal with Water loss and availability
-
Conserve and acquire water
Leaves as surface area for photosynthesis
Hooks and hairs reduce evaporation
Stomates and guard cells
Acquire water from soil via roots and root hairs and xylem - How do plants deal with water and reproduction?
- Pollen
-
Seed dispersal via
and examples -
Wind
Water, coconuts
Animals cockleburs -
Fruits whose seed dispersers are extinct
3 examples -
Anachronistic fruits
Osage orange
Honey locust
Devil's foot gourd - Two types of leaf evolution
-
Microphyll evolution (club mosses)
Megaphyll evolution - Oxygen photosynthesis occurs in which photosystem
- II
- oxygen started by what organism
- Cyanobacteria
- What are electrophoresis, amino acid sequencing, and immunological techniques used for?
- Protein similarities
- Character displacement
- Rapid evolutionary change that causes two closely related species to quickly become different. The rationale for character displacement is the Principle of Competitive Exclusion, which requires only one species to occupy a given ecological niche at a time so as to be able to experience rapid and unimpeded growth.
- q^2
- probability of homozygous recessive matings
- Most species arise from what kind of speciation
- Geographic
- What is the most common reproductive isolation mechanism between animals?
- Behavioral isolation
- E. coli bacterium is same size as
- Mitochondria
- Two essential parts to evolution according to darwin
- Natural Selection and Variation
- What produces Selection?
-
Internal Environment (Genetic Environment, Physiological/developmental Environment)
External Environment
(Physical Environment, Biological Environment {Competitoin, Predation, parasitism, food supply, mate seleciton}) - Sickle-Cell Anemia in africa
- Mild sickle cell anemia has an advantage over normal ppl b/c it makes them resistant to malaria
- Shifting Advantages
- Survive better under different conditions...ie beetles at different humididites...can co-exist as long as one doesnt get upper hand
- Resoruce partitioning
- Species specialize resources to not compete
- Results of Parasite-Host Interactions
-
Host can become extinct
Co-existence between host and parasite
Identity switching
Co-evolution of parasite and host (rabbits in australia) - Polymorphic species
- Species with many different types of individuals
- How do new adaptations originate?
-
1. De Novo
2. Pre-Adaptation (modification fo pre-existing structure for new uses, all steps must have a selective advantage over previous steps - HIV has __ strands of ___.
- 2 strands of RNA
- Monera developed in what kind of environment
- Anaerobic
-
What chlorophylls do cyanobacteria use?
Where located? -
a
Located on internal membrane in cytoplasm - Which evolved first: mitochondria or chloroplasts?
- Mitochondria
- When did the first multicellular organism evolve?
- 1.7 BYA
- Major groups of Phytoflagellates calssified by ?
- Chlorophylls
- Zoochlorellae is a ?
- Green algae
- Pollen
- Non-swimming sperm with tough water resistant coat
- Two major evolutionary changes in land plants
-
Games are produced in complex, multicellular structures
After fertilization, the embryo is retained on teh parent plant with nourishment - First green algae
- 700 MYA
- Angiosperms do not have...
- gametogangia
- What is the only process that consistently leads to adaptation?
- Natural selection!