Introduction to Psychology 2
Terms
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Every event has a cause.
Striving for immediate causes rather than searching for final causes. - Determinism
- Behavior is due to a person's decision not external determinants.
- Free Will
- Relationship between mind and body.
- Mind-Body (Mind-Brain)
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Mind is seperate from brain.
Mind Controls the brain and body. - Dualism
- Conscious experience is inseperable from the physical brain.
- Monism
- Determines roles of heredity and environment in expression of particular behaviors.
- Nature-Nurture
- 1st Psych lab in Germany in 1879. Experiments have 2 elements (Feeling,Sensations).
- William Wundt
- Cornell University in 1892. Nature of mental experiences.
- Edward Titchener
- Present stimuli and subjects describe features.
- Structuralism
- Founder of american psychology. Harvard University. Concerned with actions the mind performs.
- William James
- How the mind produces various behaviors.
- Functionalism
- Genetic factors (Drugs,Genetics)
- Biological
- Result of past actions, not what they think.
- Behavioral
- Behavior can be understood with scientific methods.
- Determinist
- Simple responses to simple stimuli. Tested this in animals.
- Jacques Loeb
- Behavior is how a stimulus triggers a response.
- Stimulus Response Psychology
- Describing what someone did, not guessing what he was trying to do.
- B.F. Skinner
- Founder of Behaviorism. Environment molds behavior.
- John Watson
- Thinking processes and aquiring knowledge.
- Cognitive
- Consciousness, values and beliefs.
- Humanistic
- Person feels fulfilled and content.
- Peak Experiences
- Viewed humans as basically good.
- Carl Rogers
- Striving for ones full potential.
- Self-Actualization
- Accepting someone as they are.
- Unconditional Positive Regard
- Basic needs, safety, psychological needs, then self-actualization.
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Hierarchy of Needs/
Abraham Maslow - Uncovering underlying drives and motivations.
- Psychodynamic
- Sexual motivation to explain behavior.
- Sigmund Freud
- Guided by individuals ancestors. Saw humans as basically good.
- Carl Jung
- Guided by ambitions.
- Alfred Adler
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1.)Develop Hypothesis
2.)Test Hypothesis
3.)Measure Results
4.)Develop Conclusions - Research Methods
- Entire group being tested.
- Population
- Closely resembles the population.
- Representative Sample
- Everyone has equal chance of being selected.
- Random Sample
- Experimenter unintentionally distorts procedures or expected outcome.
- Experimenter Bias
- Observer records data without knowing predictions.
- Blind Observer
- Pill with no known pharmacological effects.
- Placebo
- Either observer or participants are unaware who received which treatment.
- Single-Blind Study
- Both observers and participants are unaware of who received treatments.
- Double-Blind Study
- Study subjects in natural conditions.
- Naturalistic Observation
- In depth description of individual.
- Case History
- Attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through responses to questions.
- Surveys
- Measure relationship between 2 variables.
- Correlation
- Measure 2 variables without controlling either.
- Correlation Study
- Mathematical relationship between 2 variables.+1 to -1.
- Correlation Coefficient
- Investigator manipulates at least 1 variable. Can prove cause and effect.
- Experiment
- Experimenter changes or controls.
- Independent Variable
- Item measured to see how it is affected.
- Dependent Variable
- Told what is expected and agree to continue with study.
- Informed Consent
- Must be ensured among participants.
- Confidentiality
- Contains a Cell body, Dendrites, and an Axon.
- Neuron
- Insulator that aids in the transmission of impulses along an axon.
- Myelin
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Axons send information with electrical and chemical processes called?
An on off switch - Action Potential
- Area between 2 neurons where one either excites or inhibits the next.
- Synapse
- Chemicals stored in the neuron and activate receptors of other neurons.
- Neurotransmitters
- Brain and spinal cord that communicates with the body.
- Central Nervous System
- Bundles of axons between spinal cord and the body.
- Peripheral Nervous System
- Peripheral nerves that communicate with the skin and muscles.
- Somatic Nervous System
- Controls internal organs and is involuntary.
- Autonomic Nervous System
- 2chanins of neurons to the left and right side of the spinal cord. Fight or Flight.
- Sympathetic Nervous System
- Axons extending from medulla and spinal cord to neurons near the internal organs. Non-Emergency functions.
- Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Set of glands producing hormones and releasing them into the blood.
- Endocrine System
- Chemicals released by glands, and travel in the blood to other body parts.
- Hormones
- Where are the Medulla and Pons located?
- Midbrain
- What regulates overall arousal of the brain?
- Reticular Formation
- Controls rapid actions such as dribbling a basketball. Located in the hindbrain.
- Cerebellum
- Outer surface of the forebrain. 2 Hemispheres. Sensation and motor control. Gray Matter.
- Cerebral Cortex
- Specializes in vision.
- Occipital Lobe
- Specializes in touch, pain, temp. and awareness of body parts.
- Parietal Lobe
- Processing area for hearing and complex vision.
- Temporal Lobe
- Controls fine movements.
- Frontal Lobe
- Set of axons connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.
- Corpus Callosum
- Condition where neurons in the brain emit abnormal spontaneous impulses.
- Epilepsy
- A scan where x-rays pass through the head and dyes increase contrast between fluids and brain cells.
- CT (Computerized Axial Tomography)
- A high resolution image of the brain recording radioactivity of injected chemicals.
- PET Scan (Positron-Emmision Tomography)
- Uses magnetic detectors to record scans of the brain. Active area of brain has less oxygen recorded.
- MRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
- What occurs to someone who damages the entire primary cortex?
- Completely Blind
- Damage to the inferior temporal cortex would cause?
- Faceblindness
- Damage to part of the color pathway causes? Definition: Recognizing colors after light changes.
- Color Constancy
- Causes neglect of the opposite side of the body.
- Unilateral Neglect
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Located in the nucleus. Chemical basis for heredity.
23 individual or 23 paired. - Chromosomes
- A fertilized egg.
- Zygote
- Sections along a chromosome. Direct someones development.
- Genes
- A chemical that controls the production of RNA.
- DNA
- A chemical that controls the production of protein.
- RNA
- Two genes of a pair that are the same.
- Homozygous
- Two genes of a pair that are different.
- Heterozygous
- Chromosomes that determine the sex. XX=female XY=male
- Sex Chromosomes
- A disease resulting in progressive memory loss.
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Disease resulting in loss of muscle control.
- Huntington's Disease
- An estimation of the variation of a population due to heredity. From 0=not due to heredity or 1=due to heredity.
- Hereditability
- Identical heredity.
- Monozygotic Twins
- Similar genetic makeup.
- Dizygotic Twins
- Changes in gene frequencies of a species.
- Evolution
- When individuals with certain characteristics reproduce more successfully, then future generations resemble those.
- Natural Selection
- Cells that convert energies into signals from the nervous system.
- Receptors
- Visual receptors covering the back of the eyeball.
- Retina
- A rigid, transparent structure on the outer surface of the eyeball.
- Cornea
- Decreased flexibility in the lens resulting in difficulty focusing close up.
- Presbyopia
- Elongation of the eyeballs resulting in nearsightedness.
- Myopia
- Flattened eyeballs resulting in farsightedness.
- Hyperopia
- An increase in pressure in the eyeball.
- Glaucoma
- When the lens in the eye becomes cloudy.
- Cataract
- Central area of the retina. For highly detailed vision.
- Fovea
- Gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light.
- Dark Adaptation
- Cells that make contact with other neurons. Vision
- Bipolar Cells
- Recieve input from bipolar cells.
- Ganglion Cells
- Ganglion cell axons join to form?
- Optic Nerve
- Theory that receptor respond to 3 colors. Blue, Red, and Green.
- Trichromatic Theory or Young-Helmholtz Theory
- Vision is paired opposites. red-green, yellow-blue, white-black.
- Opponent Process Theory
- Seeing one color after removing the other color.
- Negative (Color) Afterimages
- Perceiving a color in the cerebral cortex camparison of retinal patterns.
- Retinex Theory
- Cannot tell one color from another.
- Color Blindness
- Vibrations of air or other medium.
- Sound waves
- The frequency of a sound.
- Hertz
- Perception of sound.
- Pitch
- The amplitude of sound waves.
- Loudness
- Snail shaped organ with fluid filled canals and contain receptors for hearing.
- Cochlea
- Structure within the Cochlea that contains hair cells.
- Basilar Membrane
- Failure of the bones in the ear that cannot transmit sound to the Cochlea.
- Conduction Deafness
- Damage to the Cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve.
- Nerve Deafness
- Basiliar membrane produces movement at the same frequency of the sound.
- Frequency Principle
- Structure in the inner ear. Balance and posture.
- Vestibular Sense
- Feeling of warmth, skin pressure, cold, pain, etc.
- Cutaneous Senses
- Refers to the body-sensory system.
- Somatosensory System
- A neurotransmitter that inhibits release of substance P and decreases pain.
- Endorphins
- Sense of smell.
- Olfaction
- Sense of position of the head and limbs in relation to the trunk.
- Kinesthesis
- Receptors for orientation and movement that are located in fluid filled sacs and contain hair cells.
- Vestibular Sacs
- When hair cells are bent by body tilt a neual impulse is?
- Transduction
- Intensity someone can detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
- Sensory Threshold
- The time of maximum dark adaptation.
- Absolute Threshold
- Stimuli that can affect behavior even when we do not consciously perceive message.
- Subliminal Perception
- Tendency to perceive and object even when what strikes the retina changes.
- Visual Constancy
- Two kinds of Visual Constancy.
- Shape and Size Constancy
- An object incorrectly perceived to be moving against a stationary background.
- Induced Movement
- Illusion of movement by a rapid succession of stationary images.
- Stroboscopic Movement
- Perception of distance.
- Depth Perception
- Movement of both eyes.
- Binocular Cues
- Perceive depth and distance with one eye.
- Monocular
- Determines the development of monocular depth perception.
- Visual Cliff
- The misrepresentation of a visual stimulus.
- Optical Illusions
- A rhythm of activity and inactivity.
- Circadian Rhythms
- When you travel and your internal clock is out of sync.
- Jet Lag
- Sleep that enables the body to recover from the exertions of the day.
- Repair and Restoration Theory
- Sleeping and walking in order to conserve fuel and protect us from danger.
- Energy-Conservation Theory
- Eyes move rapidly, and this sleep is light and heavy sleep.
- REM Sleep
- A theorist that believes dreams reveal unconscious thoughts and motivations.
- Sigmund Freud
- Dreams are accidental by-products of arousal during REM sleep.
- Activation-Synthesis Theory
- Believes dreams are a form of thinking and not overridden by sensory control.
- Neurocognitive Theory
- Lack of sleep.
- Insomnia
- Irregular or no breathing during sleep.
- Sleep Apnea
- Abnormal sleep pattern with extreme sleepiness during the day.
- Narcolepsy
- Unsettling experiences while sleeping resulting in talking.
- Sleep Talking
- Occurs in stage 4 sleep and lasts for less than 15 minutes.
- Sleep Walking
- An unpleasant dream.
- Nightmare
- State of extreme panic during sleep.
- Night Terrors
- Excessive unrefreshing sleep.
- Hypersomnia
- Condition of increased suggestibility
- Hypnosis
- A suggestion an individual performs after coming out of hypnosis.
- Posthypnotic Suggestion
- Induced relaxation with special techniques.
- Meditation
- A class of molecules including methanol, ethanol,and propylalcohol.
- Alcohol
- A medication that helps people calm down and relax.
- Tranquilizers
- A medication that causes individuals to feel happy, warm, and content without anxiety and pain.
- Opiates
- A medication resulting in intesification of sensory experiences, drowsiness, and time passing slow. THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol)
- Marijuana
- A medication that increases energy, alertness and results in pleasant feelings.
- Stimulants
- Drugs responsible for inducing sensory distortions. LSD, PCP.
- Hallucinogens
- Psychologists that believe you should only study observable, measureable behaviors. Not mental processes.
- Behaviorists
- Russian Scientist. Experimented with dogs to prove conditioning.
- Ivan Pavlov
- Learning a new response by pairing 2 stimuli. A neutral stimulus and 1 that already evoked a response.
- Classical Conditioning
- Something that automatically elicits an unconditioned response.
- Unconditioned Stimulus
- The action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits.
- Unconditioned Response
- A stimulus in which can be controlled such as a buzzer.
- Conditioned Stimulus
- The response the conditioned stimulus elicits as a result of training.
- Conditioned Response
- A process that strengthens a conditioned response.
- Acquisition
- Repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. When responses stop producing reinforcements.
- Extinction
- Temporary return of an extinguished response after a delay.
- Spontaneous Recovery
- Responding differently to the 2 stimuli based on the result that follow from each.
- Discrimination
- The extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to a similar stimulus.
- Stimulus Generalization
- What is the term for the definition nearness in time?
- Temporal Contiguity
- Predictability that the unconditioned stimulus is more likely to occur after the conditioned stimulus than otherwise.
- Contingency
- The psychologist that studied cats that were placed in a box and had to escape.
- Edward L. Thorndike
- An event that increases the future probability of the most recent response.
- Reinforcement
- Responses that closely follow reinforcement will be connected with the situation.
- Law of Effect
- The changing of a behavior by providing reinforcement after a response.
- Operant Conditioning
- Responses that include salivation, digestion and affect internal organs. (Classical Conditioning)
- Visceral Responses
- Responses that include muscles of the body. (Operant Conditioning)
- Skeletal Responses
- More similar a stimulus is to the original stimulus the more strongly the subjest is to respond.
- Stimulus Generalization
- A stimulus designating which response is appropriate or not.
- Discriminative Stimulus
- A change in electrical activity of the skin when under stess.
- Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
- Used rats to prove operant conditioning in a Box.
- B.F. Skinner
- Using successive approximations to change behavior.
- Shaping
- Reinforcing each behavior with the opportunity to engage in the next behavior.
- Chaining
- When an event presented strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Positive Reinforcement
- A response followed by a negative reinforcement.
- Punishment
- The lack of response leads to reinforcement.
- Omission Training
- The avoidance of a painful circumstance.
- Escape Learning
- Reinforcement of the response by absence of pain.
- Negative Reinforcement
- Exhibit frequent behavior serves as a reinforcer for any less frequent behavior. David Premack.
- Premack Principle
- A reinforcer that is reinforcing because of their own properties.
- Unconditioned Reinforcers
- A reinforcer that reinforces because of their prior connection with an unconditioned reinforcer.
- Condtioned Reinforcers
- What provides evidence that operant conditioning does more than increase behavioral frequencies?
- Latent Learning
- Reinforcement occurs for every accurate response exhibited.
- Continuous Reinforcement
- Reinforcement for some responses but not for others.
- Intermittent Reinforcement
- Reinforcement only after a predetermined number of correct responses.
- Fixed-Ratio Schedule
- Reinforcement after a variable number of correct responses.
- Variable-Ratio Schedule
- Reinforcement for the first response after a specified time interval.
- Fixed-Interval Schedule
- Reinforcement after a variable amount of time has lapsed.
- Variable-Interval Schedule
- Attempting to change a subjects behavior through reinforcement techniques.
- Applied Behavior Analysis or Behavior Modification
- Learning about behaviors even before trying them for the first time. Albert Bandura
- Social-Learning Approach
- The perception that you can successfully perform a task.
- Self-Efficacy
- Very brief storage of sensory information.
- Sensory Store
- Temporary storage of information someone has just experienced.
- Short-Term Memory
- More permanent storage of meaningful information and may last a lifetime.
- Long-Term Memory
- To produe it?
- Recall
- An individual receives hints about material to help recall it.
- Cued Recall
- An association that elicits the memory.
- Retrieval Cue
- Organizing information into familiar or meaningful units.
- Chunking
- The ability to state a fact.
- Declarative Memory
- A memory of a skill.
- Procedural Memory
- The ease to retrieve a memory depends on the number and type of associations formed.
- Levels-of-Processing Principle
- Skimming something is harder for you to remember.
- Shallow Processing
- Reading something then thinking about it in different ways.
- Deeper Level of Processing
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Survey
Process Meaningfully
Ask Questions
Review - SPAR Method
- Remembering a few words from a list usually the first and the last few.
- Serial-Order Effect
- Tendency to remember the first few items on the list.
- Primary Effect
- Remembering the last items on a list.
- Recency Effect
- Information that may help regain memory at a later time.
- Retrieval Cues
- An association formed at time of learning to help retrieve it later.
- Encoding Specificity Principle
- Being in the same condition when original learning took place.
- State Dependent Memory
- A memory aid bases on encoding each item in a special way.
- Mnemonic Device
- Severe loss or deterioration of memory.
- Amnesia
- Damage to the hippocampus causes difficulty storing long term memories known as?
- Anterograde Amnesia
- Loss of memory surrounding events just before brain damage.
- Retrograde Amnesia
- Prolonged vitamin D deficiency due to alcoholism causes what?
- Korsakoff's Syndrome
- Recognition that someone is using their own memory.
- Explicit Memory
- Does not require any recognition that someone is using their own memory.
- Implicit or Indirect Memory
- A degenerative condition that destroys brain cells and impair memory.
- Alzheimer's Disease
- Use this to fill in the blanks of a forgotten memory.
- Reconstruction
- Used to mold the recollection of an event to fit how the event actually turned out.
- Hindsight Bias
- Moving a memory from the conscious mind to the unconscious mind.
- Repression
- Thinking or gaining knowledge.
- Cognition
- Using categories to define objects.
- Categorization
- Mental images that resemble vision.
- Cognitive Maps
- A serial process. You must attend to one part after another in series.
- Attention
- The difficulty in naming a color when it is written in a different color.
- Stroop Effect
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Understanding the problem
Generating a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis
Cheking the results - Problem Solving
- The ability to express a variety of ideas.
- Productivity
- A system involving converting a deep structure into a surface structure. Not memorzing sentences but using rules to make your own.
- Transformational Grammer
- Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area.
- Areas of the brain important for language.
- Inarticulate speech and trouble using and understanding grammer.
- Broca's Aphasia