Topic 5 SL
Terms
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- disease caused by bacteria
- cholera, Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), tuberculosis
- antibodies
- proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens. usually specific and only bind to one antigen. bind to antigens on the surface of a pathogen and stimulating its destruction.
- antigens
- foreign substances that stimulate the production of antibodies.
- effects of HIV on the immune system
- a reduction in the number of active lymphocytes and a loss of the ability to produce antibodies.
- disease caused by protozoa
- Malaria (Plasmodium), Trypanosoma cruzi (African sleeping sickness)
- large intestine
- responsible for the reabsorption of water from the gut and processes waste. Indigestible parts of food are formed into feces for removal from the body.
- first step of heartbeat
- atria walls contract, pushing blood from the atria into the ventricles through the atrio-ventricular valves, which are open. The semi-lunar valves are closed, so the ventricles fill with blood.
- lumen
- stores food from meal.
- less than 200 T cell/mm3 of blood
- infected person (AIDS)
- basophils
- leukocytes that attack larger parasitic invaders with destructive enzymes.
- disease caused by fungi
- athlete's foot, ringworm, thrush
- mucous membranes
- soft areas of skin that are kept moist with mucus. They are found in the nose, trachea, vagina, and uterus. Not a strong barrier , but many bacteria are killed by lysozymes, an enzyme in the mucus, and cilia then push the mucus and bacteria up and out of the trachea.
- atria
- collecting chambers, they collect blood from the veins.
- colon
- lumen
- chief cells
- produce pepsinogen a protease enzyme.
- reasons why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not viruses
- may inhibit the synthesis of peptidoglycan cell wall, may influence the structures and functions of cytoplasmic membranes, may inhibit protein synthesis, may disturb the structure and function of nucleic acids.
- sympathetic nerve
- releases noradrenalin which causes the pacemaker to speed up the beating of the heart.
- skin
- forms a physical barrier against pathogens. sebaceous glands secrete lactic acid and fatty acids, which make it acidic and prevents the growth of most pathogenic bacteria.
- third step of heartbeat
- The ventricles stop contracting and as pressure falls inside them the semi-lunar valves close, preventing back-flow of blood from the arteries to the ventricles. When the ventricular pressure drops below the atrial pressure, the atrio-ventricular valves open. Blood entering the atrium from the veins then flows on to start filling the ventricles.
- phagocytosis
- the ingestion of invading particles by many types of white blood cells called leukocytes.
- composition of blood
- plasma, erythrocytes (red blood cells), leucocytes (white blood cells: phagocytes and lymphocytes), and platelets.
- second line of defense against pathogens
- phagocytes, antimicrobial proteins, and the inflammatory response.
- HIV
- Human Immunodeficiency Virus, cause of AIDS.A retrovirus having RNA as its genetic material and not DNA. It transcribes its RNA into DNA using an enzyme called reverse transcriptase.Gradual deterioration of immune function. CD4 Helper T cells are disabled and killed during a typical infection.
- protease
- pepsin, wall of stomach, proteins, small polypeptides/amino acids, 1.5.
- neutrophils
- leukocyte. short lived cells that leave the blood and enter infected tissue in response to chemical signals (chemotaxis) released from damaged cells and phagocytize microbes.
- amylase
- salivary amylase, salivary gland, starch, maltose, 7
- polyclonal selection
- when several types of antibodies can bind to the same antigen, so more than one B cell begins clonal selection.
- Transmission of HIV
- sexual contact, sharing of needles or syringes, mother to child transmission during pregnancy, blood tranfusion or cuts in the skin.
- clonal selection
- it is impossible to make a large quantity of all of these types of antibodies so instead a few B cells that can make each type are produced and if these cells come in contact with an antigen to which their antibody can bind they multiply to form clones of many cells.
- Helper T Cells
- play a central role in immune response by signaling other cells in the immune system to perform their special functions.
- process of clotting
- release of clotting factors from platelets and damaged cells resulting in the formation of thrombin. Thrombin catalyses the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into the fibrous protein fibrin, which captures red blood, cells.
- disease caused by flatworms
- Pork tapeworm, Trematoda, Cestoda, Schistosomiasis (bilharzia)
- virus reproduction
- use the host cell's metabolic pathways that are not affected by antibiotics.
- lymphocytes
- leukocytes. become specialized as B cells and T cells which produce the immune response against foreign substances.
- eosinophils
- leukocytes that attack larger parasitic invaders with destructive enzymes.
- pathogen
- an organism or virus that causes a disease.
- 6 methods by which pathogens are transmitted and gain entry to the body
- Inhalation, cutaneous, gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract, blood transfusion, animals and insects, cuts
- pacemaker of sinoatrial node
- responsible for initiating each contraction of the heart. located on wall of right atrium.
- lacteals
- connected to the lymphatic system for the transport of lipids.
- disease caused by roundworms
- Ascaris (Hookworm) eggs contained in contaminated food are swallowed, circulate through the bloodstream, reach the lungs, grow into larvae in the nasal cavities, swallowed into the stomach where they grow into adult worms and start the cycle again.
- digestive enzymes
- increase the rate of reaction of the hydrolysis of insoluble food molecules to soluble end products.
- epithelium
- consisting of only one thin layer of cells, is all that foods have to pass through to be absorbed.
- arteries
- carry blood away from the heart
- capillaries
- allow for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste products from the cell. very narrow so they can penetrate all parts of tissues and have a larger total surface area.
- stomach
- breaks down and stores the food from a meal and begins protein digestion. Turns food into a semi-liquid substance. The acid kills bacteria that could cause food poisoning.
- How bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics
- by acquiring genes encoding proteins that protect them from the effects of the antibiotic. The genes may arise by mutation, or acquired from other bacteria that are already resistant to the antibiotic. Genes are often found on plasmids, which spread easily from one bacterium to another.
- gastric pits
- secrete mucus, enzymes, and acid.
- parasympathetic nerve
- releases acetylcholine which causes the pacemaker to slow down the beating.
- what makes antibodies
- lymphocytes called B cells.
- inhalation effects of anthrax
- initial symptoms resemble a common cold. After several days, the symptom may progress to severe breathing problems and shock. usually fatal.
- passive immunity
- immunity due to the acquisition of antibodies from another organism in which active immunity has been stimulated, including via the placenta or in colostrums.
- AIDS makes people vulnerable to what kind of infections
- lungs, intestinal tract, brain, eyes, debilitating weight loss, diarrhea, neurological conditions and cancers.
- transported by blood
- nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, and urea.
- 800-1200 T cell/mm3 of blood
- uninfected person (AIDS)
- mitochondria in epithelium cells
- provide the ATP needed for active transport.
- villi
- absorb the end products of digestion. Increase the surface area for absorption of digestion products.
- capillary wall
- only have one thin layer of endothelium. allows rapid diffusion of substances in and out of capillaries for exchange of materials. Have pores to allow phagocytes/tissue fluid to leave.
- mucus secreting cells
- protect the surface of the stomach from auto-digestion.
- third line of defense against pathogens
- lymphocytes and antibodies
- cause of anthrax
- an acute infectious disease caused by the spore forming bacterium, Bacillus anthracis. Most commonly occurs in wild and domestic lower vertebrates, but can also occur in humans. transmitted cutaneously, by inhalation and through gastrointestinal tract.
- gastrointestinal effects of anthrax
- may follow the consumption of contaminated meat and is characterized by an acute inflammation of the intestinal tract. Initial signs of nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting, and fever are followed by abdominal pain, vomiting blood, and severe diarrhea. results in death 25-60% of cases.
- valves
- ensure that the blood always flows in the correct direction.
- antibody production
- many types of lymphocytes exist. each type recognizes one specific antigen and responds by dividing to form a clone. This clone then secretes a specific antibody against the antigen. 1. antigen detection 2. activation of the Helper T Cells 3. Antibody production by B cells
- phagocytes
- identify pathogens and ingest them by endocytosis. They are then killed and digested inside the cell by enzymes from lysosomes.
- protein channels in the microvilli membranes
- allow rapid absorption of foods by facilitated diffusion and pumps allow rapid absorption by active transport.
- cytotoxic T cells
- lymphocyte.destroy cancer cells and body cells infected with viruses. lymphocyte
- disease caused by virus
- influenza, Rubella (german measles)
- parietal cells
- produce HCL which kills microorganisms. Converts inactive pepsinogen to active pepsin.
- cutaneous effects of anthrax
- 95% of infections occur through a cut in the skin, such as when handling contaminated wool, hides, leather or hair products of infected animals. Skin infection begins as a raised itchy bump that resembles an insect bite but within 1-2 days develops into a vesicle and then a painless ulcer, usually 1-3cm in diameter, with a characteristic black necrotic area in the center. Lymph glands in the adjacent area may swell. About 20% of untreated cases will result in death. death rare with appropriate antimicrobial therapy.
- microvilli
- border of the epithelial cell increases the surface area for absorption.
- first line of defense against pathogens
- skin and lysozymes
- veins
- they carry blood from the body back to the heart. they are squeezed and have valves to prevent backflow. have thinner layers of connective tissue, elastic and smooth muscle fibers because the pressure is low (no pulse).
- absorption
- villi (in the small intestine) absorb food molecules. The soluble products are first taken up by various mechanisms into the epithelial cells that line the gut. These epithelial cells then load the various absorbed molecules into the blood stream.
- small intestine
- where digestion is completed and products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream. Secretes enzymes to complete the process of digestion. Triggers pancreas to release enzymes and liver to release bile.
- monocytes
- leukocyte. migrate to tissues and develop into macrophages which are large, long lived amoeboid cells that engulf microbes and destroy them with digestive enzymes.
- natural immunity
- immunity due to infection.
- second step of heartbeat
- ventricle walls contract powerfully and the blood pressure rapidly rises inside them. This rise in pressure first causes the atrio-ventricular valves to close, preventing back-flow of blood to the atria and then causes the semi-lunar valves to open, allowing blood to be pumped out into the arteries. At the same time the atria start to refill as they collect blood from the veins.
- assimilation
- when food molecules become part of the tissues of the body. The soluble products of digestion are then transported to the various tissues by the circulatory system. The cells of the tissues then absorb the molecules for use within these tissues.
- muscular walls
- maintain peristalsis.
- artery walls
- made of connective tissue, elastic and muscle fibers and a layer of endothelial cells.
- lipase
- pancreatic lipase, pancreas, triglycerides, fatty acids and glycerol, 7
- challenge and response
- a immunity is only developed if the immune system is challenged by the disease.
- artificial immunity
- immunity due to inoculation.
- ventricles
- the pumping chambers, they pump blood out of the semi-lunar valves and into the arteries at high pressure.
- adrenalin
- produced by the adrenal gland, carried to the pacemaker by the bloodstream tells the pacemaker to speed up the beating of the heart: it also increases blood sugar levels.
- active immunity
- immunity due to the production of antibodies by the organism itself after the body's defense mechanisms have been stimulated by invasion of foreign micro-organisms.