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anthropology ch 3

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_______ use a variety of methods to study the biology, behavior, and evolutionary history of our closest relatives.
Primatologists
Evidence indicates that the first ______ appeared over 200 million years ago as small nocturnal creatures.
mammals
The earliest ________-like creatures came into being 65 million years ago when a mild climate favored the spread of forests over much of the earth.
primate
_______ change and the extinction of dinosaurs favored mammal diversification, including the development of arboreal mammals from which primates evolved.
Climate
______ small size enabled them to use tree branches inaccessible to predators.
They could gather leaves, flowers, fruits, insects, eggs, and even nesting birds.
Natural selection favored those who gripped tightly and judged depth correctly.

Arboreal Primates
What had these changes over time: A reduction in the number and size of teeth. Binocular stereoscopic vision (depth perception) and a reduced sense of smell. An intensified sense of touch. And an enlarged, responsive cerebral cortex.

primates
Primates have binocular vision which allows what?
2 fields of vision to overlap
Or they could have _____________ from binocular vision and nerve connections that run from each eye to both sides of the brain allowing nerve cells to integrate the images derived from each eye.
Complete three-dimensional vision
Lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers are grouped together by some primatologists as _________.
prosimians
Monkeys, apes, and humans are grouped together as what?
anthropoids
The living primates whose anatomy and behavior most closely resemble those of the earliest primates and _______ and _________.
lemurs and lorises
In appearance and in their nocturnal habit, ________ resemble lemurs and lorises.
In the structure of the nose and lips, and the part of the brain governing vision, they resemble monkeys.
Their head, eyes, and ears are huge in proportion to the body
tarsiers
_________ live in tropical forests of South and Central America.
All are arboreal with long tails.
Some possess prehensile or grasping tails, which they use as a fifth limb.



New World monkeys
_________ have a 40-million-year shared evolutionary history in Africa distinct from anthropoid primates in the tropical Americas.
They are divided from apes at the taxonomic level of superfamily.
They possess nonprehensile tails and may live on th
Old World monkeys and apes, including humans
The closest living relatives we humans have in the animal world.
They include gibbons, siamangs, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos.
In appearance, they resemble one another more than they do humans, but their genetic structure and bio
Apes
_______ is using the arms to move from branch to branch, with the body hanging suspended beneath the arms.
brachiation
The long intervals between births results in a slow ________.
population growth
_______ employ trail signs to communicate their whereabouts to others
Bonobos
__________ use facial expressions to convey emotional states
Chimpanzees
________ means living in trees.
arboreal
_______ focuses upon the formation of new species (speciation) and on the evolutionary relationships between groups of species.

Macroevolution
The process of forming new species is called ________.
speciation
Speciation is inferred in the fossil record when a group of organisms takes on a different appearance over time.
true
Over time, as the two populations come to differ from each other, speciation occurs in a branching fashion known as
___________.
cladogenesis
In ___________ a single population accumulates new mutations over time until it is considered a separate species.
anagenesis
A model of macroevolutionary change that suggests evolution occurs via long periods of stability or stasis punctuated by periods of rapid change is what?
Punctuated Equilibria
About 23 million years ago, hominoids, the primates that include all living and extinct apes and humans began to appear in Asia, Africa, and Europe
true
Genetic studies have confirmed that the ______ _______ are our closest living relatives
African apes
________ preceded brain expansion and played a pivotal role in setting us apart from the apes
Bipedalism
Humans and their ancestors are distinct among hominoids for ,___________a form of locomotion on two feet
bipedalism
The genus including several species of early bipeds from southern and eastern Africa living between about 4.3 and 1.1 million years ago, one of whom was directly ancestral to humans is called ________.
Australopithecines
________ australopithecines are known for their jaw, muscles and teeth structure.
Robust
Members of the ________ Australopithecus possessing a more lightly built chewing apparatus.
Likely had a diet that included more meat than that of the robust australopithecines.


genus
“Handy man.”
The first fossil members of the genus Homo appearing 2.5 million years ago, with larger brains and smaller faces than australopithecines.
May have been a tertiary scavenger. These are called _________.



Homo habilis
_____ was the first stone tool industry. Beginning between 2.6 and 2.5 million years ago
oldowan
_________ is the Old Stone Age beginning with the earliest Oldowan tools.
Spanning from about 2.6 million to 250,000 or 200,000 years ago.


Lower Paleolithic
__________ is the “Upright man.”
A species within the genus Homo first appearing just after 2 million years ago in Africa and spreading through the Old World.
Had a brain close in size to that of modern humans.
Had sophisticated behaviors in
homo erectus
________ were living between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago, evolving humans achieved the brain capacity of contemporary Homo sapiens.
Several variations of the genus Homo existed around this time, including the Neandertals.
Archaic Homo sapiens
___________ were A distinct group within the genus Homo inhabiting Europe and Southwest Asia from approximately 125,000 to 30,000 years ago.
Represented as the classic “cave men.”
They had modern-sized brains with faces and skulls that were very
neanderthal
________ buried their dead, reflecting ritual behavior.
Fossil remains of an amputee discovered in Iraq and an arthritic man excavated in France imply they cared for the disabled.


neanderthals
________ is the tool industry of the Neanderthals and their contemporaries.they are lighter and smaller than those of earlier traditions. these tool makers toolmakers obtained many smaller flakes, which they retouched and sharpened.
mousterian
Evidence indicates that at least one population of archaic Homo sapiens evolved into modern humans
true
________ is the last part (40,000 to 10,000 years ago) of the Old Stone Age, featuring tool industries characterized by long slim blades and an explosion of creative symbolic forms.

upper paleolithic
____________ is the hypothesis that modern humans originated through a process of simultaneous local transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens throughout the inhabited world.

The multiregional hypothesis
The hypothesis that all modern people are derived from a single population of archaic H. sapiens from Africa. These H. sapiens replaced other archaic forms due to superior cultural capabilities. Also called the “Eve” or “Out of Africa” hypothesis.
African Origins Hypothesis
The Middle Stone Age that began about 12,000 years ago.
The end of the glacial period saw physical changes in human habitats. Sea levels rose, vegetation changed, and herd animals disappeared from many areas. This period marked a shift to hunting small
Mesolithic
_________ are Ground stone tools, including axes and adzes, were needed for new technologies in the post-glacial world. Many tools were made with microliths: small, hard, sharp blades of flint that could be mass produced and hafted with others to produce
Mesolithic tools
________ is A Mesolithic culture living in what are now Israel, Lebanon, and western Syria, between about 12,500 and 10,200 years ago.
They buried their dead in communal cemeteries.
Basin-shaped depressions in the rocks found outside homes and plast
natufian culture
The ________ lived at a time of dramatically changing climates in Southwest Asia. Between 12,000 and 6,000 years ago, the region experienced dry summers significantly longer and hotter than today.
Natufians
The _______ modified their subsistence practices:
They burned the landscape to promote browsing by deer and grazing by gazelles. They emphasized the collection of wild seeds from the annual plants that could be effectively stored to see people through
Natufians
_______ is the term used to refer to Mesolithic cultures in the Americas. The change to food production took place independently and more or less simultaneously in various regions of the world.
People became more sedentary, allowing for a reorganizatio
Archaic culture
_________ was the New Stone Age; a prehistoric period beginning about 10,000 years ago in which peoples possessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated crops and/or animals
Neolithic
The __________ derives its name from polished stone tools characteristic of this period
Neolithic, or New Stone Age
This period saw a transition from a foraging economy to one based on food production. It is ________.
neolithic
_______ is any new idea, method, or device that gains widespread acceptance in society
Innovation
_________ _______ is the creation, invention, or discovery of a completely new idea, method, or device

primary innovation
__________ ___________ is
a deliberate application or modification of an existing idea, method, or device


Secondary innovation
Source of all cultural change is either primary or secondary innovation
true
__________ is an evolutionary process whereby humans modify the genetic makeup of plants or animals, to the extent that members of the population are unable to survive and/or reproduce without human assistance.

domestication
_____________ is A switch from food foraging to food production does not free people from hard work.
Food production is not necessarily a more secure means of subsistence than food foraging.


example of domestication
The oasis theory was Proposed by _________, earliest scientifically testable explanation for the shift to domestication.

V. Gordon Childe
_______________Addresses why humans became food producers.
Argues that when glaciers retreated north, the area of the Fertile Crescent became drier and forced people to congregate at water holes.
Increased population and food scarcity pushed people
The oasis theory
Evidence indicates that the earliest plant domestication took place gradually in the ______________, just east of the Mediterranean Sea.
Archaeological data suggest the domestication of rye as early as 13,000 years ago by people living at a site (Abu H
The fertile cresent
__________ used Cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes.
Small community of gardeners working with simple hand tools and using neither irrigation nor the plow.
Horticulture societies
________ allowed people to increase their populations, to live together in substantial sedentary communities, and reorganize the workload in ways that permitted craft specialization.

Farming
________ is the spread of certain ideas, customs, or practices from one culture to another. Once farming emerged, it was more or less guaranteed that it would spread to neighboring regions through migration and diffusion
diffusion
__________ was An early farming community in the Jordan River Valley of Palestine.

Jericho
The _______ settlement was able to have Crops grown almost continuously, due to the presence of a bounteous spring and the rich soils of an Ice Age lake that dried up 3,000 years earlier
Jericho
For _______ to protect their settlement against floods and mudflows they built stone walls (6 1/2 feet wide and 12 feet high) and a ditch (27 feet wide and 9 feet deep).
A village cemetery reflects a sedentary life. Evidence of trade includes obsidian
Jericho
________ materials: Stone that was too hard to be chipped was ground and polished for tools.
People developed scythes, forks, hoes, and plows to replace digging sticks
Neolithic materials
_______ culture soon had extensive manufacture and use of pottery which requires knowledge of clay and techniques of firing and baking.
Other technological developments included building of permanent houses and the weaving of textiles
neolithic
Skeletons from Neolithic villages show evidence of severe and chronic ________ ________ as well as pathologies related to infectious and deficiency _________.
nutritional stress
diseases
High starch diets led to increased dental decay.
Domestication encourages a sedentary lifestyle with the potential for overpopulation relative to the resource base. These were some problems of the ________ culture.
neolithic
Neolithic competition among settlements for _________ led to increased mortality due to warfare. Sedentary life brought _______ problems as garbage and human waste accumulated. The close association between humans and domestic animals allowed the transmis
resources
sanitation
_______ lines are shown on your bones from stress endured in your lifetime.
harris
Measles, Tuberculosis, and small pox were all diseases coming from ________.

cattle
_________ is Cultivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes
horticulture
_________ is Intensive crop cultivation, employing plows, fertilizers, and/or irrigation
agriculture
_________ is Breeding and managing migratory herds of domesticated grazing animals
pastoralism
Old Stone Age is called
paleolithic
Middle Stone Age is called
mesolithic
New Stone Age is called
neolithic
_____ make up the largest part of most archaeological assemblages

stone tools
______ is often the only artifact to survive at a site

stone
a __________ is any lithic material that has been modified or used by a human being or a direct ancestor
stone tool
stone tools are made by _______ a piece of _____ into a desired shape

reducing
rock
hammerstone
core
flake
debitage
are all what?



stone tools
At the beginning of __________ the dominant stone tool tradition was the Oldowan

Paleolithic
Homo erectus uses a very distinct type of tool, called a _________. This tool is distinct in it’s shape and versions of it are seen everywhere they went

“hand-axe”
the ________ persists as the dominant technology for more than a million years.
the _________ was used for digging, chopping, and skinning/disarticulating prey


hand axe
________ tools are far more diverse than the Acheulian tradition. Multiple type of scrapers, gouges, knives, notched tools, and potential spear points. A unique method of flake-tool manufacture emerges around 150,000 years ago

Mousterian
__________ technique is A unique way of preparing a core to produce a flake of predetermined size and shape

Levallois
Upper paleolithic: characterized by the use of a ________ to gain all the tools needed to survive. They were struck off of a core very similar to the Levallois core. this technique can produce more than 15 times the amount of cutting edge Mousterian techn
blade core
The ____________ allowed the production of myriad tool types
scrapers
burins
awls
knives
blade core technology created an explosion of bone tools






blade core
_________ allowed human beings to colonize the globe

stone tools
__________ -by 12,000 years ago, extinction of most mega-fauna at northern latitudes
environmental shifts cause change in reindeer herd migration
use of microliths (small and delicately shaped stone tools)
fishing, hunting of solitary animals, a
Mesolithic
much greater reliance on gathering
new technologies such as the bow and arrow allow hunting of more diverse animal species, in particular birds and solitary animals
heavy reliance on fishing as indicated by number of fishhooks in archaeological asse
diet
_________is characterized by polished and ground stone tools
by 12,000 years in the Middle East, there is a tendency towards a semi-nomadic hunting and gathering behavior
the earliest beginnings of domestication occur from 10,000 to 7,500 years ago<
neolithic

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