AP Psych Cognitive Development
Terms
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- Jean Piaget
- 1920s working to develop questions for children's intelligence tests
- schema
- concept
- assimilate
- interpreting one;s new experience in terms of one's exsisting schemas
- accommodation
- adapting ones current understandings (schema) to incorporate new information
- cognition
- all the mental activities associated w/ thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
- sensorimotor stage
- from birth to 2 yrs, during which infants know the works mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activites
- object permanence
-
awareness that things continue to exsist even when not perceived.
-8 months infants exhibit memor for things no longer seen - preoperational stage
- 2-6 or 7 yrs child learns the use of lnguage but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
- conservation
- the principle that roperties such as mass, volumes, and numbers remin the same despite changes in the forms of objects
- egocentric
- preoperational child's difficutly taking another's point of view
- theory of mind
- david premack and guy woodruff- people's ideas about their own and others' mental statues- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict
- autism
- disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by defiecient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind- hve difficulty understanding sally dolls state of mind differs from their own and difficult reflection own mental states
- asperger syndrome
- normal intelliegence, accompanied by exceptional skill or talent in specific areas, but deficient social and communication skills
- concrete operational stage
- 6 o 7-11- during which children gain the mentl operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
- formal operatinal stage
- 12- people begin to think logically about their abstract concepts
- strager anxiety
- the fear of stranges that infants commonly display- begin 8 months
- attachment
- an emotional ties with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
- safe haven and secure base
- parent infant emotional communication occurs via touch prividing w safe haven when distressed and a secure bae from which to explore
- criticl period
- an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
- imprinting
- process by which certain animals form atachments during a critical period very early in life
- insecure detachment
- less likely to explore their surroundings, may cling to mother
- secure detachmetn
- in mother;s presence they play comfortably, happily exploring new environment
- termperament
- characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
- erik erikson- basic rust
- sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences w/ responsive caregivers
- self concept
- a sense of one's identity and personal worth- age 12
- authoritarian
- parents impose rules and expect obedience- result in children w/ less self esteem and les social skills
- permissive parents
- submit to their children;s desires, make few demans, and use little punishment- more aggressive and immature
- authoritative parents
-
are both demanding and responsive. they exert conrol not only by setting rules and eforcing them by also by explaining the reasons and encouragin open discussion and allowing exceptions when makin gthe rules (just right)
-children w/ highest selfesteem, social competence, and self reliance - correlation is not causation
- traits can influence parenting more than parenting styles or competent parents and competent children share genes that predispose social competence
- adolescence
- the years spent morping the child to adult
- puberty
- the period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducting- 2 year period rapid pysical development 11- girls, 13- boys
- primary sex characteristics
- the body structures- ovaries, testes, and external genitalia that make sexual reproduction possible develop dramatically
- secondary sex characteristics
- nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quailty, and body hair
- menarch
- the first menstrual period- 12
- spermarche
- firs male ejaculation occurs during nocturnal emiddion
- myelin
- fatty tissue around axons that speeds up neurtransmission causes frontal lobe development
- formal operation
- piaget's term for adolescents capability of abstract logic: if this, then that
- moral reasoning
- the thinking that occurs as we consider right and worng
- kohlberg
- moral dilemmas: 3 levels of moral thinking: preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality
- preconventional morailty
- before 9- children have a preconventional morality of self interest: they obey to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
- convntional morality
- early adolescence- morality that evolves to a more conventional level tha tcares for others and upholds laws and social rules because they are the laws and rules
- postconventional morality
- affirms peoples agreed upon rights or follows what one personally perceives as basic ethical preinciples- middle class european and n american educated who prize individualism- cpmtrpversoa;
- social intuitionist
- moral feelings preced moral reasoning
- delay gratificatin
- more socially responsible, academically successful, and productive
- erik erikson
- each stage life psychosocial task- crisis that needs resolution
- identity
- ones sense of self- the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating varioius roles
- intimacy
- forming close relationships
- william damon
- adolescents what to achieve a purpose- a diesire to accomplish something personally meaningful that makes a difference to the world beyond oneself
- emerging adulthood
- not yet settled phase of life from 18- mid twenties
- trust v. mistrust
- infancy- if needs are dependably ment, infants develop a sense of basic trust
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- toddlerhood 1-2 yyrs- toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
- initiative vs. guilt
- preschooler 3-5 preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, aor they feel guilty about efforts to be independent
- competence vs. inferiority
- 6-puberty children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
- identity vs. role confustion
- adolescence- teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
- intimacy vs. isolation
- young adulthood- 20s-40s- young adults struggle to form close relationships to gain the capacit for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
- generitivity vs. stagnation
- middle adulthood 40-60- in the middle age, people discover a sense oof contributing to the world, usually through family and wok, or they may feel a lack of purpose
- integrity vs. despair
- late adulthod 60+- when reflection on his or her life, the older audlty may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
- menopause
- the time of natural cessation of menstruatioin; also orefers to the biologcal changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines- 5- years- reduction in estrogen
- dementia
- mental erosion caused by small strokes, brain tumors, alcoholism
- alzheimer's disease
-
3% of pop ny 75- progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning
-destroys memory then reasoning
-after yrs emotiinally flat, then disoriented and uninhibited, incontent, then menatally vacant
-deterioration neurotransmitters aceylcholine - prespective memory
- remember to...
- cross-sectional study
- people of differen ages are conmpared w/ one another- older adults give fewer correct answers that younger
- longitudinal study
- research in what the same people are restudied over a long period of time
- crystallized intelligence
- one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, tesnds to increase w/ age
- fulid intelligence
- one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
- midlife transition
-
struggle, regret, feeling struck down by life in 40s transition to middle adulthood
-caused by illness, divorce, job loss- not age - social clock
- culturally preferrred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
- generativity
- being productive and supporting future generations
- integrity
- feeling that life has been worthwhile and meaningful
- experience and learning
- development as slow, continuous shaping process
- biological
-
development sequence of genetically predispose stages or steps
1. first 2 years of life is poor basis for predicting a person's eventual traits , personality stabilitzes as grow loder
2. characteristic- temperament more stable than others, social attitue
3. all change w/ age- conscientiousness increases during 2-s - evolutionary psychology
- behaviors, emotions, thinking apacitites that seemingly allow our distant ancestors to survive, reproduce, and send genes into the future-- works backwards
- natural selection
- principle among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reprodcution and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
- mutation
- a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
- gender
- assumed characteristics as male or female- 45/46 chromosomes unisex
- prenatal environment
- nurture begins in teh womb- 2/3 twins share same placenta- twinswho develop w/ seaparate placenta less similar in psychological traits- self control and social competence
- pruning
- after brain maturation provides us w/ an abundance of neural connctions, experience preserves our activated connections while allowing unused connections to degenerate
- freudian psychology
- blames schizophrenia and asthma on bad mothering-- parents do matter
- selection effect
- kids seek out peer w/ similar attitudes and interests
- behavior genetics
- relative effect of genes (nature) and environment (nurture) on our individual differences in behvavior and mental processes
- parents, peers, and culture
- influences beliefs and values,interests, foot tastes, language, and appearance
- environment
- every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and thigns around us
- behavior geneticists
- the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
- chromosomes
- threadlike sturcutres made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
- DNA
- deoxyribonucleic acid- complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
- genes
- biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
- genome
- the complete instructions for the making of organisms, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
- gene complexes
- human traits influenced by them, many genes acting in concert- height of face, size of vertevrae- influence by different genes interacting w/ env
- identical twins
- develop froma single fertilized egg that splits into 2- genetically identical
- fraternal twins
- develop from separate fertilized eggs. genetically no closer than brother and sisters
- temperament
- person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
- heritability
- the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.
- interaction
- the effect of one factor (env) depends on another factor (heredity)
- molecular genetics
- subfield of biology that studies the ,p;eci;ar strictire amd fimctopm pf gemes
- culture
- the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
- preservation of innovation
- enjoyment of cultures landmarks, language,
- norms
- undertood rules for accepted and expected behavior, they prescribe proper behvaior
- personal space
- the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies
- individualism
- giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attritbutes rather than group identificaitons
- collectivism
- giving priority to the goals of one's group adn defining one's identity accordingly
- family self
- what shames the child sames the family, visa versa
- aggression
- physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
- males answer syndrom
- women more likely to admit that they don't know an answer
- interdependent
- women--use conversation more to explore relationships; men use it to communicate solutions
- X chromsome
- sex chromosome found in both men and women- female 2X's, males 1--X from each parent produces male
- Y chromosome
- found only in males
- testosterone
- most important of male sex hormones. both males and females have it, but additional tesosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and teh development of the male's sex characteristics during puberty
- role
- a set of expectations about a social position, defining hwo those in the position ought to behave
- gender roles
- a set of expected behaviors for males and for females
- gender identity
- sense of male or female
- gender-typed
- the acquisiton of a traditional masculine or feminine role
- social learning theory
- we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
- gender schema theory
- children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
- occam's razor
- principle that we should prefer the simples of competing explanations
- developmental psychology
- a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social chage throughout the life span
- nature/nurture
- genetic inheritance and experience influence development
- continuity/ stages
- development a gradual, continuous process, or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages
- stability/change
- do our early personalitite trais persist through life or do we become different perons as age?
- zygotes
- fertilized eggs, enters 2 week period rapid cell division and develops into empbryo
- differentiate
- to speciale in structure and function
- embryo
- developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through second month
- fetus
- developing human orgaism 9 weeks after conception to birth
- teratogens
- agents, such as chemical and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
- fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
- physcial and cognitive abnormalitlies in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking.
- rooting reflex
- baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple
- habituation
- decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimuation. as infants gain familiarity w/ repeated exposure to visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
- maturation
- biological and growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
- bilogical maturation
- development of cerebellum- creates readiness tolear walking at age 1
- Freud
- human personality arises from conflict between aggressive, pleausre seeking biological impuses and the internalized social restrains against them
- personality
- result of efforts to resolve the basic conflict- to express impulses in ways that bring satisfation w/o also brining gulit or punishment
- id
- contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggrssive drive.
- pleasure principle
- id operates on it- demainding immediate gratification
- ego
- largely conscious- executive part of personality that mediats amonng the demans of the id, sugerego, and reality
- reality principle
- ego operates on it- satisfying id;s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather tahan pain
- superego
-
4-5 yrs begins-- part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (conscience) and for future aspirations
-ego reconciles ego and id - phallic stage
- genital stimulation-unconscious sexual desires for their mother and jealousy and hatred for father, whom they consider rival
- oedipus complex
- boys sexual desired toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival fater
- elextra complex
- girl's version of oedipus complex
- identification process
- children incorporate their parent's values into their developing superegos
- object relations theorists
- early childhood relations w parents influence our developing identiy, personality, frailties
- fixation
- lingering focus of pleasure- seeking energies at an earlies psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved