A Speaker's Guidebook
Terms
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- Benefits of public speaking
- Honing critical thinking and listening skills. Enhancing your career as a student. Accomplishing professional goals. Accomplishing personal goals. Exploring and sharing values. Expanding your participation in civic life.
- Dyadic communication
- a form of communication between two people, as in conversations.
- Small group communication
- involves a slamm number of people who can see nad speak directly with one another, as in a business meeting
- Mass communication
- occurs between a speaker an a large audience of unkown people. In mass communication the recievers of the message are not present with the speaker, or they are part of such an aimmense crowd that there can be little or no interaction between speaker and listener
- Public speaking
- a speaker delivers a message with a speicif purpose to an audience of people who are present during the delivery of the speech
- Public speaking always includes...
- a pseaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker its attention, and a message that is meant to accomplish a specific purpose
- Differences between public speaking and other forms of communication
- oppurtunities for feedback. Level of preparation. Degree of formality
- Feedback
- listener response to a message. In public speaking middle of low and high feedback, audience offers verbal and nonverbal cues
- Source
- or sender, is the person who creates a message
- Encoding
- organizing the message, choosing words and sentence structure and verbalizing the message. it is the physical process of delivering the message
- Receiver
- the recipient of the source's message
- Decoding
- the process of interpreting the message
- Audience perspective
- try to determine the needs, attitudes, and values of your audience before you begin speaking
- Message
- is the content of the communication process: thought and ideas put into meaningful expressions
- Channel
- the medium through which the speaker sneds a message
- Noise
- Anything that interferes with the communication process between a speaker and an audience
- Shared meaning
- the mutual understanding of a message between speaker and audience
- Rhetorical situation
- includes anything that influences the speaker, the audience, the speech, the occasion, or the situation (context). Everything including past performances
- Rhetorical proofs
- various types of persuasive appeals
- Ethnocentrism
- the belief the ways of one's own culture are superior to those of other cultures
- rhetoric
- the practice of oratory
- The canons of rhetoric
- invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery
- Invention
- refers to adapting speech information to the audience in order to make your case
- Arrangement
- organizing the speech in ways that are best suited to the topic and the audience
- Style
- is the specific word choices and rhetorical devices (techniques of luangage) speakers use to express their ideas in order to achieve their speech purpose
- Memory
- the practice of the speech until it can be artfully delivered
- Delivery
- the vocal and nonverbal behavior you use when speaking
- Speechmaking process
- Select a topic. Analyze the audience. State the speech purpose. Compose a thesis statement. Develop the main points. Gather supporting materials. Seperate the speech into its major parts. Outline the speech. Consider presentation aids
- Demographic characteristics
- ratios of males to females, racial and ethical differences represented in the group, noticeable age variations, and proportion of the group that is from out of state or out of the country
- Audience analysis
- the process of gathering and analyzing information about your listeners with the explicit aim of adapting your message to the information you uncover
- Specific purpose
- an explicit statement, stated as a declarative sentence, of what you expect the speech to accomplish for the audience
- General purpose
- Inform, persuade or mark a special occasion
- Thesis statement
- the theme or central idea f the speech stated in the form of a single, declarative sentence
- How many main points should you organize your speech around
- two or three
- Main points
- express the key ideas and major themes of the speech
- Introduction
- serve to introdue the topic and speaker adn to alert audience members to your specific speech purpose
- Conclusion
- restates the speech purpose and reiterates how the main points confirm it, also thank listeners for thier time and attention
- Coordinate point
- equal importance, parallel alignment
- Subordinate
- given less weight than the main points they support and are placed to the right of points they support
- the principle of coordinationa and subordination
- placement of ideas relative to thier importance to one another
- Circular response
- continual flow, or feedback, between speaker and listener
- Listening
- the conscious act of recognizing, understanding, and accurately interpreting the messages communicated by others
- Hearing
- the physiological process of percieving sound
- Selective perception
- people pay attention selectively to certain messages and ignore others
- Factors that influence what we listen to and what we ignore
- We pay attention to what we hold to be important, we pay attention to information that touches our experiences and backgrounds, and we sort and filter new information on the basis of what we already know
- Active listening
- focused, purposeful listening. It is a multistep process of gathering and evaluating information
- Listening distraction
- anything that competes for attention that you are trying to give to something else
- Scriptwriters
- people who may find themselves thinking about what they, rather than the speaker, will say next
- Defensive listening
- usually occurs when we sense that our attitudes or opinions are being challenged
- What active listeners do
- set listening goals, listen for main points, and watch for the speaker's nonverbal cues
- Critical thinking
- the ability to evaluate claims on the basis of well-supported reasons.
- What Critical thinkers do
- Evaluate the evidence, analyze assumptions and biases, assess an argument' logic, resist false assumptions, overgeneralizations, either-or thinking and other fallacies in reasoning, consider multiple persepectives (even more than two) and summarize and judge
- Valid generalization
- supported by different types of evidence from different sources, and does not make claims beyond a reasonable point
- Overgeneralizations
- unsupported conclusions
- How to criticize or evaluate a presentation in a constructive way
- Start off by saying something positive, focus on the speech, not the speaker and target your critism
- Ethics
- the study of moral conduct- how people should act toward one another
- Ethincs in public speaking
- the responsibilities speakers have toward their audience and themselves, it also encompasses the responsibilities listeners have toward speakers
- Ethos
- meaning "character". Audiences listen to and trust speakers if they demonstrate positive ethos (positive character).
- Positive ethos includes
- competence (demonstrated by the speaker's grasp of the subject matter), good moral character (reflected in speaker's trustworthiness, straightforwardness, and honest presentation of the message), goodwill (demonstrated by the speaker's knowledge and attitude of respect toward the audience and the particular speech
- Speaker credibility
- speakers are trusted if they have a sound grasp of the subject, display sound reasoning skills, are honest and unminipulative and are genuinely interested in the welfare f thier listeners
- First amendment
- plays a pivotal role in enforcing safeguards by guaranteeing freedom of speech
- Free speech
- the right to be free from unreasonable constraints on expression
- Fighting words
- speech that provokes people to violence
- Slander
- defamatory speech
- Defamatory statement
- one that potentially harms an individual's reputation at work or in the community
- Values
- both attitudes adn beliefs are shaped by values- people's most enduring judgements about what's good and bad in life. Values are more general than attitudes or beliefs. They are more resistent to change
- Terminal values
- desirable ends in themselves; you can think of them as end states or states of being (a comfortable lifestyle, an exciting life)
- Instrumental values
- valued characteristics that people can possess (ambitious, broadminded)
- Dignity
- feeling worthy, honored, or respected as a person
- Integrity
- refers to incorruptibility- the ability to avoid compromise for the sake of personal expediency (slanting facts in your favor)
- Trustworthiness
- a combination of honesty and dependability. Includes revealing your true purpose to your audience, not using misleading, diseptive, or fasl information, and achnolowledging sources
- Respect
- treating people right, addressing audience members as unique human beings and refraining from rudeness and other forms of personal attack. Focus on issues rather than on personalities, allow the audience the power of rational choice, and avoid in-group and out-group distinctions
- Jargon
- specialized terminology
- Hate speech
- the ultimate vahicle for promoting in-group and out-group distinctions. It is any offensive communication- verbal or nonverbal- that is directed against people's racial, ethnic, religious, gender, or other characterisitcs
- Responsible public speaker considers...
- the topic and purpose, evidence and reasoning, accuracy, and honest use of emotional appeals
- Rule for avoiding plagerism as a public speaker
- any source that requires credit in written form should be acknowledged in oral form
- Common knowledge
- information that is likely to be known by many people, but such information must truly be widely disseminated.
- Factors that underlie the fear of addressing an audience
- lack of public speaking experience, feeling different from members of the audience, and uneasiness about being the center of attention
- Pre-preparation anxiety
- some people feel anxious the minute they know they will be giving a speech
- Preparation anxiety
- when they begin to prepare for the speech
- Pre-performance anxiety
- when they rehearse their speech
- Performance anxiety
- most pronouces duringthe introduction phase of the speech
- Strategies for getting started with confidence
- Modify thoughts and attitudes, visualize success, use relaxation techniques, depersonalize the speech evaluation and seek pleasure in the occasion
- Visualization
- Highly successful way to reduce nervousness and help you prepare effectively for your speech
- Relaxation techniques
- stress-control breathing (need to feel more movement in the stomach than in the chest), natural gestures, and freedom to walk
- Attittudes
- reflect a predisposition to respond to people, ideas, objects or events in evaluative ways. If we have a positive attitude toward reading, for example, we're likely to read
- Beliefs
- Attitudes are based on beliefs- the ways in which people percieve reality. They are our feelings about what is true. W
- Difference between attitudes and beliefs
- attitudes deal with the felt quality of some activity or entity ("Reading is good" or "God is good), beliefs refer to our level of confidence about the very existence or validity of something ("I believe God exists" of "I am not sure God exists")
- Perspective-taking
- is critical in seeing things from your listener's point of view
- Target audience
- those individuals within the broader audience whom you are most likely to influence in the direction you seek
- Demographics
- are the statisitical characteristics of a given population. Age, ethnic or cultural background, socioeconomic status, religious and political affiliation, and gender
- Co-culture
- social community whose perceptions and beliefs differ significantly from yours
- Individualism versus collectivism
- Individualistic cultures tend to emphasize the needs of the individual rather than those of the group. In collectivist cultures personal identity, needs and desires are viewed as secondary to those of the larger group. US-indivualistic
- High uncertainty versus low uncertainty
- Uncertainty aviodance refers to the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguity. High-undertainty avoidance cultures tend to structure life more rigidly and formally for thier members, while low-uncertainty avoidance cultures are more accepting of uncertainty in life and therefore allow more variation in individual behavior. US: lowest uncertainty avoidance
- High power distance versus low power distance
- Power distance refers to the exten to which a culture values social equality versus tradition and authority. Cultures with high levels of power distance tend to be organized along more rigidly hierarchial lines, with greater emphasis placed on honoring authority. Those with low levels of power distance place a higher value on social equality. US: a little above midpoint range
- Masculine versus Feminine
- The masculinity and femininity dimension refers to the degree to which a culture values traits that it associates with masculinity and with femininity. Dominant values in US weighted toward masculinity
- Socioeconomic status
- Income, occupation and education
- Close-ended questions
- designed to elicit a small range of specific answers supplied by the interviewer
- Fixed alternative questions
- contain a limited choice of anwers, such as yes, no or sometimes
- Scale questions
- measure the respondents level of agreement or disagreement
- analyzing the speech setting
- Size of the audience and physical setting, time and length of speech, seating capacity and arrangement, sound and lighting, the speech context (the rhetorical situation, ex: you may be thrid speaker, might preced someone more well known than you)
- General speech purpose
- "Why am I speaking on this topic for this particular audience and occasion?" To inform, persuade or mark a special occasion
- Informative speech
- to increase the audience's understanding and awareness of a topic
- Persuasive speech
- is to effect some degree of change in the audience
- Special occasion speech
- are prepared for a special occasion and for a purpose dictated by that occasion
- Specific speech purpose
- zeroes in more closely than the general speech purpose on the goal of the speech.
- Supporting material
- illustrates or clarifies a point in a speech, elaborates on an idea and substantiates or proves that a statement is correct.
- brief examples
- offer a single illustration of a point
- Extended examples
- offer multifaceted illustration of the idea, item, or event being described, therby getting the point across and reiterating it effectively
- Hypothetical examples
- example of what you think the outcome will be, something that could happen in the future if certain things occured
- Narratives
- story, they tell tales, both real and imaginary, about practically anything under the sun
- Anecdotes
- breif stories of interesting, humorous, or real-life incidents
- testimony
- firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and opinions by people, both lay (nonexpert) and expert
- Expert testimony
- includes any findings , eye witness accounts, or opinions by professionals who are trained to evaluate or report on a given topic
- Lay testimony
- testimony by nonexperts
- Facts
- represent documented occurrences, including actual events, dates, times, people involved, and places
- Statistics
- summarized data that measure the size or magnitude of something, demonstrate trends, or show relationships
- Descriptive statistics
- describe things (ex. there are too many of these)
- Inferential statistics
- help to predict things (ex. based on this we could expect this)
- Primary research
- original or first-hand research, such as interviews and surveys conducted by you or the speaker
- Secondary research
- the vast world of information gathered by others
- Interview
- a face-to-face communication for the purpose of gathering information
- Vague question
- dont give the person being interviewed enough to go on
- Leading question
- encourages, if not forces, a certain response and reflec the interviewer's biases
- Loaded question
- phrased to reinforce the interviewer's agenda
- Nuetral question
- dont lead the interviewee to a desired response
- Opening of interveiw
- creating a positive intitial impression is critical to establishing a spirit of collaboration in the interview setting
- The body of an interview
- here you will pose your substantive questions
- The closing of an interview
- exit gracefully, check notes, give interveiwee oppurtunity to finalize his or her remarks
- Database
- a searchable place, or "base," in which information is stored and deom which it can be retrieved
- Library of Congress call number or Dewey decimal number
- libraries organize thier books and other holdings according to these
- Periodical
- a regularly published magazone or journal
- Encyclopedias
- summarize the knowledge that is found in original form elsewhere
- General encyclopedias
- truly encyclopedic: they attempt to cover all important subject areas of knowledge
- Specialized encyclopedias
- delve deeply into one subject area such as religion, science or art
- Almanacs
- or fact books, can find facts and statistics that support your topic
- APA
- American Psychological Association
- Search engines
- index the contents of the web
- Crawler-based search engines
- use powerful software programs that "crawl" the Web, automatically scanning millions of documents that contain the jeywords and phrases you command them to search
- pay-for-placement search engines
- allows advertisers to bid on popular search terms that are relevant to their site, with the top position going to the highest bidder
- Individual search engines
- compile thier own databases of Web pages, ex. Google
- Meta-search engines
- scan a variety of individual search engines simultaneously, ex. dogpile
- Specialized search engines
- devoted entirely to your topic
- Human directory
- aka subject directory is a searchabel database of Web sites that have been submitted to the directory and then assigned by an editor to an appropriate category or categories
- Hybrid search engines
- combine crawler based search engine results with results from a human directory
- Gateway
- a human directory that contains at least 100 sites that have been reviewed by an expert
- library gateway
- an electronic antry point into a large collection of research and reference material that have been selected and reviewed by librarians
- Subject specific database (vortal)
- subject specialists, including but not limited to librarians, point to specialized databases created by professors, researcher, experts, governmental agencies, buisness interests, or other subject specialists and individuals who have a deep interest in a particular field and have accumulated and complied Web links to it
- Invisible Web
- the portion of the web that includes pass-protected sites, documents behind firewalls, and the contents of proprietary databases
- Boolean operators
- words placed between the keywords in a search that specify how the keywords are related, ex. AND, OR, NOT
- Supporting points
- represent the supporting material or evidence you have gathered to justify the main points and lead the audience to accept the purpose of the speech
- A well organized speech is characterized by:
- unity, coherence, and balance
- Unity
- a speech exhibits unity when it contains only those points that are implied by the purpose and thesis statement
- Coherence
- refers to clarity and logical consistency. It is organized logically, adhere to principle ofcoordination and subordination
- Balance
- suggests that appropriate emphasis or wieght be given to each part of the speech relative to the other parts and to the theme. Assign each main point at least two supporting points
- Signposts
- aka conjunctions or phrases such as next, first, finally, when moving between supporting points
- Restate-forecast form
- the transition restates the point just convered and previews the point to be covered next
- Rhetorical question
- transitions can be restated as rhetorical question, or questions that do not invite actual responses. Instead, they make the audience think
- Internal preview
- this transition is often used in speech introductions to describe what will be covered in the body of the speech
- Internal summary
- draws together important ideas before proceeding to another speech point. often used in speech conclusions
- Topical pattern of arrangement
- When each main point of a topic is of relatively equal importance, and when these points can be presented in any order relative to the other main points without changing the message, a topical pattern of arangement (aka categorial pattern) may be the most appropriate way to arrange your main points
- Chronological pattern of arrangement
- aka temporal pattern, follows the natural sequential order of the main points
- Spatial pattern
- When the purpose of your speech is to describe or explain the physical arrangement of a place, a scene, or an object, logic suggests that the main points be arranged in order of thier physical proximity or direction relative to each other
- Causal (cause-effect) pattern of arrangement
- the speaker relates soemthing known to be a cause to its effects
- problem-solution pattern of arrangement
- main points organized to demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem and then to provide justification for a proposed solution
- Narrative pattern of arrangment
- the speech consists of a story or a series of short stories, replete with characters, setting, and a plot
- Circle pattern of arrangement
- speaker develops one idea, which leads to another, which leads to another, which leads to a third and so forth until he or she arrives back at the pseech thesis
- Functions of the introduction
- arouse audience attention and willingness to listen, preview the topic and purpose of speech, establish bond with audience, establish the speaker's credibility to address the topic, motivate the audience to accept the speaker's goals
- Functions of the conclusion
- signal to the audience that the speech is coming to an end and provide closure, summarize the main points, reiterate the thesis or central idea of the speech, challenge the audience to respond (challenges audience members to use what they have learned in a way that benifits them
- call to action
- speaker challenges listners to act in response to the speech, see the problem in a new way, change thier beliefs about the problem, or change both their actions and their beleifs about the problem.
- Colloquialisms
- regional variations in expressions
- Biased language
- any language that relies on unfounded assumptions, negative descriptions, or stereotypes of a given group's age, class, gender, disability, and geographic, thnic, racial or religious characterisitcs
- Conciseness
- encourages a clear understanding of the speaker's message. use fewer than more words and shorter sentences.
- Contractions
- shortened forms of the verb to be and other auxilary verbs in conjunction with pronouns (I, he, she, you) and proper nouns (names)
- Concrete language
- specific, tangible, and definite
- Abstract language
- language that is general or nonspecific...ex. old, bad, short, thing, good, late, new
- Figures of speech
- include similes, metaphors, and analogies
- Simile
- explicitly compares one thing to another, using like or as to do so. ex. he works like a dog
- Metaphor
- compares two things by describing one thing as actually being the other. ex. love is a rose
- Analogy
- simply an extended metaphor or simile that compares un unfamiliar concept or process to a more familiar one to help the listener understand the unfamiliar one.
- Understatement
- drawing attention to an idea by lowering its importance
- Irony
- Using humor, satire, or sarcasm to suggest a meaning other than the one that is actually being expressed
- Allusion
- Making vague or indirect refernce to people, historical events, or concepts to give deeper meaning to the messahe
- Hyperbole
- Using obvious exaggerations to drive home the point
- Onomatopeia
- the imitation of natural sounds in the word form; it adds vividness to the speech
- Malapropism
- the inadvertent use of a word or a phrase in place of one that sounds like it
- Denotative meaning
- of a word is its literal, or dictionary, definition.
- Connotative meaning
- of a word is the special association that different people bring to bear on it
- Voice
- the feature of verbs that indicates the subject's relationship to the action. A verb is in the active voice when the subject performs the action. A verb is in the passive voice when the subject is being acted upon or is the reciever of the action.
- Hedges
- unnecessary words and phrases that qualify or introduce doubt into statements that should be straighforward. ex. i guess my question is...
- tag questions
- unnecessary questions that are appended to statements or commands. ex. it was too expensive, wasnt it. or it was too expensive, or at least i thought so
- Anaphora
- the speaker repeats a word or a phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or sentences. ex saying im going to talk about twice in sentences on after the other
- Alliteration
- repitition of the same sounds, usually consonants, in two or more neighboring words or syllables. ex. down with dope up with hope
- Hackneyed
- if alliteration is poorly crafted or hackneyed it can distract from, rather than enhance, a message
- parallelism
- the arrangement of words, phrases, or sentences ina simialr form. ex, numbering points first, second and third. state relevant dates
- Antithesis
- the speaker sets of two ideas in balanced (parallel) opposition to each other to create a powerful effect. ex. one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind
- Traids
- combination of three elements may be natural to a speech. ex. of the people, by the people and for the people.
- Qualities of effective delivery
- natural, enthusiastic, confident and direct (eye contact being one way to be direct and build a rapport with your listeners
- elocutionary movement
- the elocutionists regarded speechmaking as a type of performance, much like acting. delivery was empasized to such an extent that it often assumed more importance than the content of the speech. today it is the content that is seen as beign most important
- Speaking from a manuscrpit
- involves reading a speech verbatim-that is, from prepared written text (either on paper or ona teleprompter) that contains the entire speech, word for word.
- Oratory
- speaking from memory
- Speaking impromptu
- unpracticed, spontaneous, or improvised
- Speaking extemporaneously
- falls between impromptu and written or memorized deliveries. You prepare well and practice in advance, giving full attention to all facets of the speech-content, arangement, and delivery alike. You speak from an outline of key words or phrases
- Volume
- the relative loudness of a speaker's voice while giving a speech. The volume for speeches is somewhat louder than that of normal conversation
- Pitch
- range of sounds from high to low (or vice versa). Number of vibrations per unit of time
- Intonation
- the rising and falling of voice pitch across phrases and sentences
- Vocal fillers
- uh, hmm, you know, I mean, and its like
- Pauses
- enhance meaning by providing a type of punctuation, empahsizing point, drawing attention to a key thought, or just allowing listeners a moment to contemplate what is being said
- Vocal variety
- varying all elements-volume, pitch, rate and pauses
- Pronunciation
- the correct formation of word sounds ex. effect stated as uh-fect is wrong
- Articulation
- the clarity or forcefulness with which the sounds are made, regardless of whether they are pronounced correctly. ex. mumbling or lazy speech
- Mumbling
- slurring words together at a very low level of volume and pitch so that they are barely audible
- Lazy speech
- ex. gonna instead of going to
- Aural channel
- made up of vocalizations that form and accompany spoken words. include qualities of volume, pitch, rate, variety and pronounciation and articulation
- Paralanguage
- refers to how something is sadi, not to what is sad
- The visual channel
- includes the speaker's phusical actions and appearance-facial expressions, gestures, general body movement, physical appearance, dress, and objects held
- how nonverbal and verbal communication work together in a speech
- nonverbal communication clarifies the meaning of verbal messages, facilitates feedback, creating a loop of communication between speaker and audience, helps establish a relationship between speaker and audience, and helps establish speaker credibility
- talking head
- remains steadily positioned in one place behind a microphone or a podium
- presentation aids
- include objects, models, pictures, graphs, charts, video, audio, and multimedia
- Functions of presentation aids
- help listeners process and retain information, promote interest and motivation, convey information concisely, and lend a proffesional image
- Prop
- any live or inanimate object. ex. snake or stone, that captures audience's attention and illustrates or emphasizes key points
- model
- three-dimensional, scale-size representation of an object
- pictures
- two-dimensional representations of people, places, ideas, or objects produced on an opaque backing. ex. photograps, diagrams, maps, and posters
- Daigram
- aka schematic drawing. explains how something works or how it is contructed or operated. Simplify and clarify complicated procedures, explanations and operations
- Map
- a representation of a whole or a part of an areas on a flat surface
- poster
- a large, bold, two-dimensional design incorporating words, shapes, and if desires, color placed on an opaque backing. Convey brief message or point forcefully and attractively
- Graph
- represents numerical data in visual form
- Line graph
- displays on measurement, usually plotted on the horizontal axis, and units of measurement or values, which are plotted on the vertical axis. good for trends, easier to read
- bar graph
- bars of varying lengths to compare quantities or magnitudes
- pie graph
- depicts the division of the whole
- Pictogram
- shows comparisons in picture form. The pictures represent numerical units and are drawn to relate to the items being compared. ex. actual little person stands for 100 people.
- Chart
- visually organizes complex information into compact form
- flowchart
- diagram that shows step-by-steo progression through a procedure, a relationship, or a process. ex. using arrows
- organizational chart
- illustrates the organizational structure or chain of command in an organization, It shows the interrelationships of the different positions, division, departments, and personnel ex. tree diagram
- Table
- systematic grouping of data or numerical information into column form
- multimedia
- combines several media (stills, sound, videa, text and data) into a single production. More senses evoked, the more memorable
- LCD
- liquid crystal diode, LCD display technology widespread. ex laptop screens, digital watches
- LCD panel
- connects to a computer, is a square, thin box that sits on top of an overhead projector.
- LCD projector
- comes with an illumination ro light source, which eliminates the need for an overhead projector
- Video projector
- used in large meeting rooms or auditoriums. connect to a computer and project an image as large as twenty-five feet long. Sharp, large image through three lenses (red, green, blue)