cognitive last quiz!
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- Cultural learning
- passing info and behaviors that have been learned on to others within a generation and to future generations (good things to eat, hunting strategies, etc.)
- what underlies cultural learning
- perspective taking
- Imitative learning
- (9 months) to really do this, the learner must register the goal of the action (take the perspective of the model and understand why they are doing it)
- instructional learning
- (4 years) this includes direct instruction. The child must also understand the goal of the action from the perspective of the teacher.
- collaborative learning
- (6 years) working together to solve a problem. in this situation, the child must understand that the other person can take the perspective of others.
- perspective taking
- gradually develops and enables the child to learn in different types of situations. This is unique to humans and means that we can pass info on accurately through generations. Each generation does not have to rediscover the same things for themselves
- to perceive humor, children must be able
- to perceive incongruity. they need to be able to see that there is a difference between what is expected and what happens.
- for something to be funny we have to know...
- what should happen in that situation
- a joke is funny when
- we are mentally challenged by it, but it isn't too difficult for us to understand
- as children develop cognitively, their sense of humor will
- also develop and change with their cognitive level
- stage one humor development
- 18-24 months: substituting one object for another in pretend play (shoe for a telephone)
- stage 2: humor development
- (2 years) first verbal jokes--calling an object by the wrong name
- stage 3 humor
- 3 years distortion of perceptual features
- stage 4 humor
- (6-7) double meanings of words and sentences
- gender identification
- incorporating the roles and values of one's gender
- kohlberg's gender
- follow piaget's model of cognitive development --completely mature concept of gender appears around age 7, the level of concrete operations
- gender constancy
- gender stays the same even if outside appearances stay
- gender identity
- being able to correctly identify one's own gender and the gender of others (achieved around 2.5)
- gender stability
- achieved around 4 or 5--gender stays the same over time
- gender consistency
- achieved around 6 or 7 gender stays the same despite the changes in behavior and dress
- gender schema
- a mental structure of expectations and associations that guides processing and helps organization with respect to gender
- if a child thinks that an activity is appropriate for their gender they will be...
- more likely to seek out information about it
- older children have more knowledge
- of gender sterotypes than younger children
- girls have more flexibility in
- gender sterotypes. if an activity is labeled ok for both genders--they will be more likely to pursue that activity than boys
- gender scripts
- organized event sequences related to gender
- bauer 25 months--delayed imitation
- both sexes likely to imitate an opposite sex activity, this tendency develops earlier and is more extreme for boys
- gender knowledge---there is a correlation between
- intelligence and gender knowledge (ex: children with higher vocab tend to show more sex typed play)
- children develop theories about gender--sometimes
- they are wrong
- social cognition
-
invovles many areas--anything that involves our thinking about the social world
we are very good at social interactions, but there are still individual differences in ability - reading is based on
- language development
- unlike other aspects of language development, reading is
- not a "natural" part of development
- reading is
- hard, slow, and takes effort and kids make mistakes unlike with learning to speak
- stage 0 (preschool-kindergarten)
- prerequisites of reading: learning the alphabet, recognize letters, a beginning realization that words can be recognized and used as symbols. at this stage, children may learn to recognize certain words in their environment
- stage 1: (1st grade)
- beginning reading: this stage includes the first formal reading instruction. Children begin to learn phonology recording (the connections between sounds and letters)
- stage 2: (2nd grade-3rd grade)
- learning to read: children begin to learn to read fluently. even though there children can read wrods and sentences, reading is effortful, so comprehension may not be good
- stage 3 (4th-8th grade)
- reading to learn: children at this tage can read well, and comprehend what they read. reading becomes a tool through which they learn other material
- stage 4: (high school)
- proficient reading: children begin to be able to comprehend written material in a variety of areas and can draw inferences from what they read
- emergent literacy
- the skills and knowledge that provide developmental basis for reading
- components of emergent literacy
- language, conventions of print, knowledge of letters, linguistic awareness, phoneme-grapheme correspondence, emergent reading, emergent writing, print motivations, other cognitive skills
- language
- reading build on lang skills. if you only speak english, you can't speak swedish
- conventions of print
- learning that reading (in english) goes left to right and top to bottom
- knowledge of letters
- learning the alphabet and being able to recognize letters
- linguistic awareness
- learning to recognize and separate units of language (words, syallables, morphemes and phonemes)
- phoneme-grapheme correspondence
- learning to map sounds of words onto the written symbols (letters in english) (this can be tricky)
- emergent reading
- pretend reading. children may "read" a story from memory, or from looking at the pictures and making up a story
- emergent writing
- pretend writing: children pretend to write notes, etc. (squiggles) shows interest in writing and may also illustrate knowledge of the conventions of print (writing from left to right)
- print motivation
- being interested in readin and writing. children may be interested in what things say, and may be motivated to learn to read so that they don't have to ask someone else
- other cognitive skills
- memory, attention, lang abilities etc...may affect reading abilities
- in genderal, having several of these factors
- predicts better reading than having a few of them, although a specific connectino between individual factors and later reading may not be easy to detect
- phonemic awareness
-
ability to separate out the sounds of words--need to do in order to read
4 and 5 may not be good at this ability yet. being good predicts better reading ability - phonemin awareness plays a causal role in
- reading ability
- phonological recording
-
learning which sounds and which combinations of sounds correspond to letters (phonics)--not easy in english
eventually becomes automatic and words are recognized by retrieval rather than sounding out - working memory affect on reading
- a larger working memory span tends to have better comprehension probably because they can hold more info in mind at once in order to draw connections between the material
- knowledge base on reading
- how much you already know can affect--may be proficient reading, but may not show sophisticated reading in all circumstances
- monitorying(meta reading ability)
- if you can monitor how much you are comprenhending, you may be able to change reading strategies (i.e. rereading, slowing down, etc.)
- bottom up processes
- perceptual info that is in the environment (in this case, the actual letters in the words and how to sound them out)
- top down processes
- how info that is already in the mind effects the process (in this case, goals, background knowledge, expectations, etc.)
- phonics emphasizes which approach
- bottom up--the main point is to learn how each letter sounds and how to combine these sounds when reading
- whole language approach
- top down---emphasize meaning--this approach would emphasize children' reading something they are interested in and using inofr from context to figure out what it says
- two rows of pennies, m and ms...etc..
- ask child if rows are the same, spread out one row, ask again. Conserver will say yes, non conserver will say one row has more now
- one to one correspondence (Piaget)
-
children are unable to successfully establish this between the items in the two rows--will choose the less dense row as having more, since they are unable to ignore the perceptual differences (one row is longer)
children can establish, but knowledge is fragile - when child achieves conservation of number, they realize that
- moving one row does not change the equivalence relationship
- numerosity
- the ability to accurately determine the number of items in a small (1-4) items group
- ordinality
- a basic understanding of more than and less than. for humans, tis is limited to groups of 5 or less
- counting
- a preverbal system for enumeration of small numbers. all cultures use serial ordered numbering for counting, measuring, simple arithmitic once lang. is developed.
- simple arithmetic
- an early sensitiveity to increases and decreases in the number of small groups
- one to one principle
- each item is associated with one and only one counting word
- the stable order principle
- number names have a stable, repeatable order
- cardinal principle
- the final number in the series represents the quantity of the set
- children may assume some counting principles that are
- not necessary (have to start at the left)
- children show conservation within
- the range of their counting ability (if they can count to fie, the can conserve up to five)
- eventually once countin reaches a high enough number, the child is able to
- extend their knowledge to realize that number remaines the same if nothing is added or takedn away
- piaget and counting
- used numbers higher than the child could count to establish conservation (THE STRONGEST TEST OF CONSERVATION)
- piaget stated that children did not really understand math until they understood
- reversibility---tested by showing children an array of 8 items and then splitting the array first in half and then again unevenly (4+4 or 1+7)
- stage one (5-6) math array
- the youngest children believed that splitting the array differently made the total amount different
- stage 2 math array
- children could then relize the groups were the same by counting them
- stage 3 (7 year olds)
- children knew that the groups were equivalent w/o counting
- sum strategy
- starting by countin gup the first addend and then countin to count the 2nd addend....1,2,3....1,2,3,4,5...accurate, but not efficient
- shortcut sum
- start with the first addend ad the second addened. (3 + 5..3,4,5,6,7,8
- min stategy
- staring with the larger addend, count the second added. more effiecnt than the sum or shortcut
- fact retrieval
- recalling from memory that 3 + 5 = 8..efficient, but takes practice to achieve (similar to reading word retrieval)
- decmpostition
- transforming the problem into simpler problems the most useful with larger addition....53+27....20+50....3+7...==70+10
- social learning theory bandura
- based on classical and operant conditioning...but allows that children don't need explicit reinforcement to shape theri bheavior...children can learn from observational learning, watching a model and noting outcome (reward/punish)
- reciprocal determinism
- children are influenced by others, but also determine how others respond to them
- symbolism
- socil behavior can be thought about and manipulated in the form of symbols
- forethought
- children can anticipate consequences of their actions and anticipate the actions of others
- self regulation
- children can control and modify their behavior in order to meet standards
- self reflection
- children can analyze their thoughts and actions
- vicarious learning
- observational learing--learning without explicit reinforcement, as from a model
- imitation is not...
- necessary for learning to have occurred
- young childre overestimate their
- abilities---they may thing they can imitate something that they see en if they don't have the physical abilities to do it
- self efficacy
-
how effective a person feels they are
if you think you aren't effective at a certain task, you may not perform up to your ability
interactions with teachers and parents build efficacy - preschoolers with positive self efficacy
- tend to overestimate their abilities--this may help them develop new skills since they will be more likely to try new things an to persist if a task is diffictul (they can stil accurately predict another childn's abilities--this is specific to their predictions of their own abilities)
- helplessness
- a child who displays helplessness will avoid challenges will not persist if a task is difficult and if they fail they will be likely to say that it is because they lack ability (trying harder won't help, they just can't do it)
- mastery orientation
- a child who displays a master orientation will seek out challenges, persist in difficult tasks, and be likely to attribute failure to a lack of effor (if they try harder, maybe they can do it)
- social information processing (dodge)
- thei model uses info processing ideas in explaining thinking and actins in the social world
- encoding
- taking in info about the social situation this requires attnention perception abilities and knowledge about which cues are most important
- interpretations
- what does this info mean? experiences with social situations and people allows children to develop rules for interpreting social info. this happens quickly and is probably not consicious
- response search
- this involves generating a list of possible reponses that the child could make...being able to think of more possible reponses gives a child more options and increases his her chances of finding a reponse which is socially competent
- response evaluation
- what consequences might result from each possbile response which possible reaction would be most liekly to lead to a good outcome
- enactment
- actually perform the chosen behavior
- children with socail problems (ex aggression..)....
- may have problems wiht social info processing. problems at any step may lead to a less socially competet response...example, a child may by more likely to interpret others actions as intentionally hostile which would bias them toward an aggressive response...or a child may have only a limited number of responses to choose from most of which are aggressive responses
- research has supported the prediction that aggressive children
- show problems with social info processing...aslo suggest methods for helping these children, for example, teaching them more non aggressive reponses so they will hav emore options