psych l&m exam3
Terms
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- Retrieval Inhibition
- access to nonretrieved items seems to be blocked by successful retrieval of related items
- Testing Effect
- taking a memory test not only asses what one knows, but also enhances later retention
- Mere Exposure Effect
- more exposures usually increase liking of neutral stimuli because of fluency and decreased uncertainty
- Schemas
- generalized conceptual knowledge used in understanding - meaningfully organizes concepts -tells us what to expect and also what unstated information we can infer
- Scripts
- event schemas
- TOP
- *Thematic Organization Point* - high-level analogies between instances that have similar structure but differ in their (context?) *music or story genres*
- MOP
- *Memory Organization Packets* - events or facts that can be shared across different schemas * paying, tipping, make an appointment
- Pointer
- specific details about an individual situation
- Whorfian Hypothesis
- language determines perceptions and representations
- Rosch against Whorfian Hypothesis
- - showed that people in Dani Tribe with very limited color vocabulary could still discriminate colors without teaching them the words for the colors - also showed same advantages for focal colors as did other cultures
- Focal colors
- colors that are consistently and quickly named
- Mutual Influences of Whorfian hypothesis - storage and representation of concepts
- Experience can give you richer representations - better understanding of relations and distinctiveness - which you may use language to express - using more precise terms may help memory - add to and/or cue distinctiveness
- Learning new concepts
- Best to start with consistency: establish structure THEN: increase diversity and generalization - elaborative processing
- Agnosia
- the impairment in recognizing objects
- Category aphasias
- defects in the comprehension and expression of language - have problems producing words in certain categories
- Change Blindness
- when sensory memory fails to guide your attention (fail to see changes)
- Tonic Activity
- Greater activity in brain BEFORE presentation of to-be-remembered items *overall attentional state - are you ready to process?
- Turke-Brown Bottom Lines
- - more activation of RELEVANT regions at initial exposure associated with better recognition (explicit memory) - also associated with greater priming-related reductions in activity and RT - Deactivation of regions associated with IRRELEVANT thought is important, too
- The default mode
- - Directing attention AWAY from internal irrelevant processes - vs. external (distraction)
- Attention to Memory Model proposes that
- - DPC is associated with the allocation of attentional resources to memory retrieval according to the goals of the rememberer - VPC is associated with the capture of attentional resources by relevant memory cues and/or recovered memories
- Direct Retrieval
- - A cue interacts automatically with information that is stored in memory - mediated by MTL and depends on bottom-up mediated by the VPC
- Indirect Retrieval
- - target memory is not automatically elicited by the cue: it has to be recovered through a strategic search process - mediated by prefrontal cortex and is attentionally demanding. depends on top-down mediated by DPC
- Retrograde Amnesia
- the loss or inability to remember information that was previously stored in LTM
- Anterograde Amnesia
- the inability to store new information in LTM
- Source Memory
- memory for the context in which an item or event was previously encountered
- Mental Imagery
- the visualization of images in the mind's eye' in the absence of a stimulus
- Hits
- correctly recognized old items in a recognition-memory test
- Correct Rejections
- correctly recognized new items in a recognition-memory test
- Memory Neglect
- Inability to spontaneously detect details in retrieved memories (impaired BU) but a preserved ability to search and find these details when guided by specific goals (spared TD)
- Transience
- involves a decrease in accessibility of information over time * Forgetting things that are irrelevant can lead to better memory for things that ARE relevant*
- Absent-Mindedness
- inattentive or shallow processing that contributes to weak memories of ongoing events or forgetting to do things in the future *Prevents from an overwhelming clutter of useless details*
- Blocking
- Temporary inaccessibility of information that is stored in memory (strong feeling of knowing - TOT) *All information that is potentially relevant to a retrieval cue does not automatically spring to mind and cause mass confusion*
- Misattribution
- Attributing a recollection or idea to the wrong source - source memory errors *Good so that we do not retain all of the contextual details of our numerous daily experiences* Amnesics have advantage cuz less associations so less false memories
- Suggestibility
- Refers to the memories that are implanted as a result of leading questions or comments during attempts to recall past experiences
- Bias
- Involves retrospective distortions and unconscious influences that are related to current knowledge and beliefs *No schemas would mean no development of accurate expectations of events that are likely to unfold in familiar settings
- Persistence
- refers to the information or events that we cannot forget, even though we wish we could *Remembering some traumatic events may be good for survival!*
- Power Law
- rate of forgetting slows over time (transience)
- TOTs occur because..
- - Weak links (links aren't strong enough compared to others) - Competition (other things are getting in the way. once you select something, you push down competitors)
- Consistency Bias
- change memories of attitudes to reflect later outcome/attitudes - Implicit stereotypes: nonconscious bias - Implicit theories: if you think you should have changed you most likely have not
- Efficiency
- often don't pay attention to (and thus don't encode) information about source unless we think it is going to be important
- Gist
- focus on big ideas, not details - knowledge schemas: guide memory, but can also lead it astray
- Omission
- at a moment when individuals need to remember, the desired information is inaccessible or unavailable (misattribution)
- Commission
- situations in which some form of memory is present, but is misattributed to an incorrect time, place, or person
- 3 types of misattribution
- 1. incorrect memory source - may remember a correct item or fact but misattribute the fact to an incorrect source (people think they experienced an event when they only imagined it ) 2. do not have subjective memory source - absence of any subjective experience of remembering (cryptomnesia - when people attribute a thought to their own imagination when in fact they are retrieving it without awareness from a prior experience 3. false memory - when individuals falsely recall or recognize items or events that never happened
- Jost's Law
- if two memory traces are equally strong at a given time, then the older of the two will be more durable and forgotten less rapidly - similar cues will trigger old habits (sometimes bad behavior - addiction)
- permastore
- the stable level of learning performance - forgetting occurs only up to a certain point, beyond which the memory traces appear to be frozen - the level of initial learning determines the overall level of performance
- knowledge of a foreign language
- - words that were easy to learn were more likely to be well retained - items learned ovr spaced learning sessions were better retained than those learned under massed practice
- Closed-loop skills
- continuous. Each action provides the cue for the next action - riding a bike - basal ganglia (support motor structures)
- Open-loop skills
- noncontinuous. each action involves a separate response to a direct stimulus - typing on a keyboard - MTL (making and retrieving associations) and FL (which action to do now)
- what makes something resistant to forgetting?
- need BOTH relations (relationships) and distinctiveness
- Proactive Interference
- new information has to compete with information that you have learned before
- Retroactive Interference
- recently learned material will have strong connection if still heavily in attention/focus
- Rhinal Cortex
- feeling of familiartiy
- Factors determining interference
- - SIMILARITY: the more similar the response, the more difficult it is to sort them out and retrieve the right one - STRENGTH of connection: hard to overcome extremely strong connections - NUMBER: the more connections there are to choose from, the more likely you are to screw up and choose the wrong one
- Part-set Cueing
- getting some related information makes it harder to retrieve the correct response
- cue-independent forgetting
- spotlight on practiced words and suppression of all unpracticed words
- Output interference
- answering question 1 causes us to forget question 2 because all focus is on coming up with the answer to question 1
- Organic Amnesia
- - usually associated with damage to the MTL - episodic memory lost - problem with NEW learning
- Psychogenic Amnesia
- - functional amnesia associated with a very stressful event (crime/trauma) - new learning is fine, but autobiographical and semantic memory (who you are, etc.) are damaged
- Disengagement Hypothesis
- HC activation greater if you remember ROACH than if you forget it (lazy on no-think trials)
- Active Inhibition Hypothesis
- HC activation greater if you forget ROACH then if you remember it - if item comes to mind, successfully able to suppress it so that you can't remember it later on - more HC and DLPFC activation for to-be-suppressed items. GREATER INHIBITION
- Hypermnesia
- more total items remembered at later test than at earlier test
- Reminiscience
- items remembered at later test that were NOT recalled on earlier test - not "more", maybe just different
- Lead to memory errors
- - response criterion: more willing to say something is a memory after time - post-event suggestion: loftus work on suggestibility (stop sign/yield sign)
- Lead to remembering more
- - Stimulus sampling/ Varied retrieval cues: different and perhaps better cues on later tests - retrieval time: Roediger showed that one 21 minute test could yield as good of results as three 7-minute tests
- Fugue
- pathological loss of memory