Psych 101 Exam 2
Terms
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- Consciousness
- an organism's awareness of its own self and surroundings
- Alternate States of Consciousness
-
mental states, other than ordinary waking consciousness found during sleep, dreaming, psychoactive drug use, hypnosis
- William James
- "stream of consciousness
- Controlled Processes
-
mental activitites requiring focused attention that generally interfere with other ongoing activities
example: learning how to drive a car - Automatic Process
-
mental activities requiring minimal attention and having little impact on other activities
Example: driving, "walk and chew gum" - Circadian Rhythms
-
biological changes that occur on a 24 hour cycle
Discovered in the 1960 - Our bodily rhythms are controlled by sections of the ....
- hypothalamus
- Suprachiasmic Nucleus (SCN)
-
brain's biological clock
in the visual processing section of the brain - Pineal Gland
- releases melatonin in response to the SCN
- melatonin
- hormons that effect sleep cycles and body temp
- each night we go thorugh.... to...distinct sleep stages
- 4 to 5
- beta waves
- brain waves when someone is awake
- Alpha Waves
- brain waves of someone who is relaxed and drowsy
- Hypnagogic State
- characterized by feelings of floating, weightlessness, visual images and jerky movements
- Delta Waves
-
slow, high amplitude brain waves of deep sleep
kids wet bed, sleep walk - Non REM sleep involves....frequency brain waves
- lower
- REM Sleep
- Rapid eye movement
- REM sleep involves ....frequency waves
- high
- may play a role in.... and consolidating ....
- learning, new memories
- REM is also known as ....
- paradoxical sleep
- Evolutionary-Circadian Theory
- sleep evolved to conserve energy and as a protection from predators; also serves as part of the circadian cycle
- Repair-Restoration Theory
- sleep serves a recuperative function, allowing organisms to repair or replenish key factors
- Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theory
- one of the oldest and most controversial explanations for why we dream.
- who developed the Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theory?
- Sigmund Freud
- According to Freud, dreams are....?
- "the royal road to the unconscious"
- According to Freud, the main purpose of dream was to express...?
-
our hidden desires and conflicts
symbols - Manifest Content
- according to Freud, the surface content of a dream. contains dream symbols that distort and disguise the dream's true meaning
- Latent content
-
according to Freud, the true, unconscious meaning of a dream
No scientific evidence
"what it truly means" - Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
- Hobson's theory that dreams are by-products of random stimulation of brain cells, and that the brain attempts to combine this spontaneous activity into coherent patterns, know as dreams
- Hobson and McFarley
- said that specific neurons in the brain stem are activated by REM sleep. Cortex of the brain tries to make sense out of random stimulation.
- Information Processing Theory
- dreams help us sift through our everyday experiences and thoughts; the brain periodically shuts out sensory input so that it can process, assimilate and update info
- True or False? Men and women share similar dream themes
- True
- Men are more likely to dream about
- strangers, violence, weapons, sex, achievements and outdoors
- Women are more likely to dream about....
- family, kids, familiarity
- Dysommias
- problems in amount, timing and quality of sleep
- parasomias
- abnormal disturbances during sleep
- insomnia
- persistent problems falling asleep, staying asleep
- Sleep Apnea
- repeated interruption of breathing during sleep
- Narcolepsy
- collapse and be asleep during normal waking hours
- Nightmares
- anxiety-arousing dreams occuring near the end of sleep cycle, during REM
- Night terrors
- abrupt awakenings from non REM sleep accompanied by intense arousal and feelings of panic. hard to wake someone up, sleep walking
- Meditation
- group techniques designed to refocus attention, block out distracticons, is an ASC
- Hypnosis
- trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, intense focus
- hypnosis can be used to treat...
-
chronic pain, severe burns, dentistry, childbirth and psychotherapy
- learning
- relatively permanent change in behavior or mental processes due to experience
- conditioning
- process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses
- Ian Pavlov
- originally studying digestion, but later discovered classical conditioning
- classical conditioning
-
learning that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)
- Neutral Stimulus
- stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about a response of interest
- unconditioned stimulus
- stimulus that elicits an UCR without previous conditiong
- classical conditioning is another word for...
-
learning
- unconditioned response
- unlearned reaction to an UCS that occurs without previous conditioning
- conditioned stimulus
- previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with a UCS now causes a CR
- conditioned response
- learned reaction to a CS that occurs because of previously repeated pairing with UCS
- Six Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
-
1. Higher-Order Conditioning
2. Spontaneous Recovery
3. Extinction
4.Stimulus Discrimination
5. Stimulus Generalization
6. Acquisition Assesment - Operant Conditioning (OC)
-
learning through the consequences of voluntary behavior
-response is active and voluntary - Consequences
- at the heart of OC
- Reinforcement
- strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur
- Punishment
- weakens a response and makes it less likely to occur
- Edward L. Thorndike
-
a pioneer in operant conditioning
developed the Law of Effect - B.F. Skinner
-
radical behavioralist
Extended Law of Effect
emphasized that reinforcement and punishment are always defined after the fact - Primary reinforcers are those with...
- no fundamental value
- Positive reinforcement ...a stimulus
- adds
- negative reinforcement ... a stimulus
- removes
- Fixed Ration (FR)
- reinforcement occurs after a predetermiend set of responses
- Variable Ration (VR)
- reinforcement occurs unpredictably
- Fixed Interval (FI)
- reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed
- Variable Interval (VI)
- reinforcement occurs unpredictably
- FR
- produces a high rate of response, but drops off
- VR
- very resistant to extinction
- FI
- as the time for reinforcement comes near, behavior increases, but drops off after
- VI
- response rates relatively low, but steady
- Shaping
- reinforcement delivered for successive approximations of the desired response
- shaping teaches...
- a desired response by reinforcing successively improving steps
- Skinner believed that shaping...
- explains a wide variety of skills
- what people us shaping techniques?
- parents, coaches, teachers, animal trainers
- the essence of punishment is that the response is
- weakended
- example of positive punishment
- ADDING a chore to list
- example of negative punishment
- REMOVING car keys
- cognitive-social learning emphasizes
- the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior
- insight
- sudden understanding of a problem that implies a soluiton
- latent learning
- hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs
- Observational Learning
- learning new behaviors or info by watching and imitating others
- Four procesess of observational learning
-
attention
retention
reproduction
reinforcement - attention
- you have to pay attention to the behavior being modeled
- retention
- you have to retain the info about the behavior you observed
- reproduction
- we have to be able to reproduce that behavior
- learning leads to new...
- synaptic and connections, and alterations in many brain structures
- the first evidence of learning and its effect on the brain was in the
- 1960s
- enriched enviroment
-
(tons of rats)
thicker cortex, learning faster - Deprived enviroment
- (alone) had none of learning
- Biological preparedness
- built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses
- taste aversions
- classical conditioned negative reactoin to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness
- instinctive driff
- conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response patterns
- classical conditioning can be seen in....
- marketing, prejudice, medical treatments, phobias
- Operanat conditioning can be found in
- prejudice, biofeedback, supersititions
- cognitive-social learning can be seen in
- prejudice, media influences
- memory
- most often defined as an internal record or representation of some prior event or experience
- memory is a ....process
-
constructive
- information processing model
- memory is roughly analogous to a computer where information goes through 3 basic operation
- encoding
-
processing information into the memory system
selective vs. divided attention - storage
-
retaining info over time
all over brain - retrieval
-
recovering info from memory storage
cereal positon effect-remember beginning and end more than middle, retrieval cues, priming-related associations - parallel distributed processing model
- memory results from web-like connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially
- Parallel distrubuted processing model is also known as
- connectionist model
- Three Stage Model
- memory requires three different storage boxes or stages to hold and process info for various lengths or time
- sensory memory
- brief, first stage memory
- short-term memory
- holds infor temporarily for analysis
- long-term memory
- relatively permanent storage
- Two forms of sensory memory
-
iconic memory
echonic memory
- iconic memory
- memory for visual images and input;visual memory
- echoic memory
- memory for auditory input, auditory mem
- short-term mem
-
second memory stage that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to long term memory
holds 5-9 items for 30 seconds
duration improves with maitenance rehearsal
capacity increases with chunking - chunking
- grouping things together to remember them
- short term mem is also called
- working memory
- the parts to our working memory
-
central executive
visuopatial sketchpad
phonological loop - central executive
- supervises and coordinates the two subsystems
- visuospatial sketchpad
- holds and manipulates visual images and spatial info
- phonological loop
- holds and manipulates verbal info
- all conscious thoughs occur in
- story term memory
- long tem memory
- third stage of memory that stores info for long periods of time
- long term memory
-
capacity is limitless
duration is relatively permanent
divided into 2 subsystems which are divided by 4 again - long term memory can be improved by
- organization, elaborative rehearsal, retrieval cues, recognition, recall, priming
- organization
- processing info at a deeper level
- elaborative rehearsal
- linking new info with perviously stored material
- retrieval cues
- clues or prompts that help stimulate recall
- recogniton
- retrieving a memory using specific cues (multiple choice)
- recall
- retrieving a memory using a general cue (essay)
- priming
- prior exposure to a stimulus facilitates or inhibits processing new info (smells, strongest)
- Ebbinghaus found that
-
forgetting occurs most rapidly immediately after learning
realearning takes less time than initial learning - Why do we forget? The 5 theories are
- decay, interference, retroactive interference, proactive interference
- decay
- memory degrades over time
- interference
- one memory competes or interferes with another
- retroactive interference
- new info interferes with old
- proactive interference
- old info interferes with new
- motivated forgetting
- motivation to forget unpleasant, painful, threatening or embarrassing memories
- encoding failure
- information in STM is not encoded in LTM
- retrieval failure
- memories stored in LTM are mementarily inaccessible (tip-of-the-tongue)
- misinformation effect
- memory distortion from misleading post-event info
- source amnesia
- forgetting true source of memory
- sleeper effect
- information from an unreliable source, which is initially discounted, later gains credibility because source is forgotten
- informaion overload
- distributed practice is better than mass practice
- biology affects memory in what 2 ways?
-
neuronal and synaptic changes
hormonal changes - hormal changes
- flashbulb memories
- where are memories located?
- memory tends to be localized and distributed throughout the brain, not just the cortex
- amnesia
- loss of memory due to injury or disease
- retrograde amnesia
- loss of memory for events before the brain injurt
- anterograde amnesia
- loss of memory for events after brain injury
- traumatic brain injury
- compression, twisting and distortion of the brain inside of the skull
- alzheimer's Disease
- progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss
- eyewitness testimony
- the testimony of someone who claims to have seen a crime while it was being commited
- repressed memories
- memores that were so traumatic that they were unconsciously forgotten
- who do we distort our memories?
-
we need to maintain logic and consistency
it is more efficient - tips for memory improvement
-
pay attention and reduce interference
use rehearsal techniques
use the encoding specificty principle
improve organizational skills
counteract serial position effect
employ good time management
employ self-monitoring and overlearning
use mnemonic devices