PSY 200 Personality, Motivation
Terms
undefined, object
copy deck
- Encoding
- to put information into a code for storage
- self⬐referent encoding
- making material or information personally meaningful
- flashbulb memory
- unusually vivid and detailed recollections of past events
- retroactive interference
- new information impairs the retention of previously learned information
- proactive interference
- learned information interferes with the retention of new information
- retrograde amnesia
- the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia
- anterograde amnesia
- the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia
- problem solving
- active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable
- availability heuristic
- basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances or examples come to mind
- representativeness heuristic
- involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event.
- gambler’s fallacy
- the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently
- motivation
- that activate, direct and maintain behavior toward some goal
- emotion
- subjective conscious experience accompanied by bodily arousal and by characteristic over expression
- teratogens
- a drug or other substance capable of interfering with the development of a fetus, causing birth defects
- cephalocaudal trend
- gaining control of the body head to feet
- proximodistal trend
- gaining control of the body from core to peripheral
- maturation
- the processes of biologically developing
- fast mapping
- the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure to the word
- personality
- distinct and consistent feelings and behaviors experienced by each individual
- archetypes
- images and forms that have a universal meaning across time periods and cultures collective unconscious- shared unconsciousness that all human beings have
- Role of attention in encoding
- in order to accurately encode information into the brain, one must focus their awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Selective attention is critical to everyday functioning, it filters out most stimuli while allowing a few stimuli to reach conscious awareness.
- Cocktail party phenomenon
- a person can hear their name is a large crowded and noisy room. All stimuli is taken in and filtered.
- Next in Line Effect
- the individual is preoccupied rehearsing what they are going to say instead of focusing on what is being said. Info is never recorded
- Role of Elaboration in encoding
- Info is stored in STM for 20 seconds, you must rehearse this info so that it is stored in LTM
- Structural Encoding
- shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus. Registers font, color, size
- What are the different types of encoding
- Structural, phonemic and semantic
- Phonemic Encoding
- emphasizes what a word sounds like
- Semantic Encoding
- emphasizes the meaning of verbal input, thinking about the objects and actions the words represent
- Echoic Sensory Memory
- the brief mental echo that persists after information has been heard
- Iconic Sensory Memory
- the brief visual persistence of information as it is being interpreted by the visual system
- Sensory Memory
- preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time (fraction of a second). More like an echo than a memory, stimuli isn’t stored.
- Short Term Memory
- small and limited capacity, maintains unrehearsed info for about 20 seconds. When STM reaches capacity, new info bumps out old info. Four +/- One. Capacity can be increased by combining stimuli into chunks.
- Long Term Memory
- unlimited capacity. Holds info indefinitely and permanently.
- Schemas
- organized clusters of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event.
- Semantic Networks
- nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts.
- Misinformation effect
- (Elizabeth Loftus)- when participants’ recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information: distorts memories
- Reasons why we forget
- Ineffective Encoding Decay Interference Retrieval Failure Repression
- Types of Memory (not WM, STM, LTM)
- Declarative Procedural Semantic Episodic Prospective Retrospective
- Declarative Memory
- handles factual information. Recollections of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts and ideas
- Procedural Memory
- memories for actions, skills, conditioned responses and emotional responses
- Semantic Memory
- general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned
- Episodic Memory
- made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences. (What you’ve done, seen or heard)
- Prospective Memory
- remembering to perform actions in the future
- Retrospective Memory
- remembering events from the past or previously learned information
- Tips to improve memory
- Mnemonic devices- strategies for enhancing memory. Acronyms, acrostics, rhymes Link method- forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together. Engage in adequate rehearsal Schedule distributed practice and minimize interference Organize information
- Barriers to effective problem solving
- Irrelevant Information Functional Fixedness Mental Set Unnecessary Constraints
- Differences between algorithms and heuristics
- Algorithms- methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem. Always results in a solution. Heuristics- (short cuts )guiding principle or rule of thumb used in solving problems or making decision. Remove some alternatives while pursuing others.
- 3 components of emotion
- Subjective conscious experience- cognitive component Bodily arousal- physiological component Characteristic overt expression – behavioral component
- Universality of some behavioral expressions of emotion
- Fear Disgust Happiness Anger
- Differences in the role of nature and nurture described by Locke, Rousseau, and Behaviorists
- Locke- tabula rosa: clean slate. Nurture: Caretakers and environment determines development Rousseau- Nature: innate life plan and sense of right and wrong Behaviorists- Nurture: behavior is a product of conditioning. Reciprocal determinism- environment determines behavior but behavior also has an affect on the environment.
- 3 main stages of prenatal development
- Germinal- fertilization and implantation. Formation of placenta. Embryonic- vital organs and bodily systems form. Most miscarriages and birth defects occur during this stage. Fetal- fetus, rapid body growth, bones and muscles form, formation of brain
- Reasons for shift from reflex to voluntary for rooting and stepping reflexes
- Innate motor reflexes gradually shift to voluntary actions so that the baby can control when it wants to walk and eat.
- Overextension in speech
- using a word incorrectly to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to: everything with wheels is a truck
- Underextension in speech
- errors that occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to: sister could be anyone’s sister, not just yours.
- Over-regularization of speech
- incorrect generalization of grammatical rules to irregular cases where they do not apply: “daddy taked meâ€
- Accommodation
- broaden old info to fit new info
- Assimilation
- take new info, fit into pre-existing mental structure
- Effects of culture on personality
- Individualistic- self reliant, selfish, be unique Collectivistic- group harmony, interdependent
- Atkinson & Shiffrin’s information processing theory
- Information Processing Theory: subdivides memory into three separate memory stores: Sensory Memory- preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time period Short Term Memory- limited capacity store, info stays for 20 secs w/out rehearsal Long Term Memory- unlimited capacity, holds info permanently
- Baddeley’s model of working short term memory
- Phonological Loop- recitation to temporarily hold info, evolved to facilitate the acquisition of language. Visuospatial Sketchpad- permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images Central Executive System- controls deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention as needed. Episodic Buffer- temporary, limited capacity store. Allows various components of WSTM to integrate info and serves as an interface between working memory and LTM.
- 4 main theories of emotion
- Commonsense James-Lange Cannon-Bard Schachter
- Commonsense Emotion Theory
- Stimulus - conscious feeling - autonomic arousal “I tremble because I feel afraidâ€
- James-Lange Emotion Theory
- Stimulus - autonomic arousal - conscious feeling “I feel afraid because I trembleâ€
- Cannon-Bard Emotion Theory
- Stimulus - subcortical brain activity - conscious feeling & autonomic arousal “The dog makes me tremble and feel afraidâ€
- Schachter Emotion Theory
- Stimulus - autonomic arousal - appraisal - conscious feeling “I label my trembling as fear because I appraise the situation as dangerousâ€
- Harlow’s research
- contact comfort Monkey would rather stay with soft mom and starve rather than go to wire mother that has food. This proves that love is not about food- even when you are young.
- Attachment styles
- (Ainsworth) Secure- consistent and responsive care Anxious- inconsistent care Avoidant- distant/stand-offish care
- Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor- coordination of sensory input and response Preoperational- development of symbolic though marked by irreversibility Concrete Operational- able to classify things and categorize into hierarchies Formal Operational- abstract ideas, logic and systematic thinking
- Kohlberg’s main stages of moral development
- Preconventional- (decreases with age) punishment orientation & naïve reward orientation Conventional- good boy/girl orientation & authority orientation Post Conventional- (increases with age) social contract orientation, individual principles & conscious orientation
- Erikson’s stages
- Trust vs. Mistrust – is my world prectiable and supportive Initiative vs. Guilt – am I good or bad Identity vs. Confusion – am I competent or worthless Integrity vs. Despair – have I lived a full life
- Big 5 personality theory:
- McCrae & Costa Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
- Freud’s psychoanalytic theory (structure and stages)
- id- primitive and instinctive. Operates according to pleasure principle. Raw biological urges. ego- decision making component, operates according to reality principle superego- moral component of personality, incorporates social standards about right and wrong
- Drive-Reduction Theory
- internal tensions “push†toward satisfying basic needs
- Incentive Theory
- Positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel you “pull†forces
- Biological and Evolutionary Theory
- This perspective emphasizes the role of instincts (unlearned patterns of behavior) in motivation. The contemporary view is that instincts do influence behaviors, particularly those behaviors that are common to all members of a species
- Optimum Arousal Theory
- Rather than seeking some biologically based balance, the optimum arousal theory says that people are motivated to reach an optimal state of alertness or activation. People perform better at a moderate level of arousal. People differ in the level at which they enjoy and seek stimulation.
- Hierarchy of Needs Theory
- Self Actulaization Belonging & Love Safety & Security Biological Needs
- Scripts
- organized clusters of knowledge about a particular event taken from previous experiences with the event.