Bio Test 2 L
Terms
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- Polymer
- long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
- Monomers
- (aka subunits) molecules covantely bonded together through a condensation rxn
- Condensation Rxn
- Lose a water molecule
- Hydrolysis
- Polymers dissassembled into Monomers The addition of a water molecule to break bonds between polymer
- Depolymerization Rxn
- disrupting covalent bonds to break up a polymer into smaller parts
- In order to join an unlinked monomer to a short polymer...
- H leaves SP OH leaves unlinked monomer (this process: dehydration)
- What is this: HO-R
- Polymer...alcohol bc of HO group
- Esther Bridge
- oxygen joins two molecules together
- True or False: Lipids do not consist of polymers
- TRUE
- True or False: Lipids are hydrophilic
- FALSE: lipids are HydroPHOBIC bc they consist mostly of hydrocarbons
- Lipids are mainly composed of
- hydrocarbons
- Types of Lipids
- Fats Phospholipids Steriods
- Physical states of lipids
- Oil Waxes
- Fats are composed of
- Glycerol & Fatty Acid
- Glycerol
- alcohol with 3 carbons bearing an OH group
- Fatty Acid
- Carboxyl group with a carbon skeleton and a hydrocarbon chain
- Esther bridges usually form between
- OH group and Carboxyl Group
- Saturated Fat
- NO double bonds between C atoms
- Unsaturated Fat
- One or more DOUBLE BONDS..creats kink in hydrocarbon chain (Most Animal Fats)
- What do kinks cause?
- prevent molecules from packing close together and solidfying
- Household unsaturated fats
- peanut butter margarine
- Major Function of Fats
- Energy Storage
- Phospholipids consist of
- 2 Fatty Acids & 1 glycerol
- What gives Glycerol its negative charge
- OH is joined to Phosphate group
- Major component of cell membranes
- phospholipids
- Steroids Composition
- carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings
- Example of a Steroid
- Cholestrol
- Basic Sterol Molecule
- 6-6-6-5 arrangement
- True or False: Glycerol is fully saturated
- TRUE
- Structure of phospholipid
- Polar Head: Phosphate Group (PO4) Nonpolar Tail: Fatty Acid
- Hydro___ phosphate head
- PHILIC
- Hydro____ hydrocarbon tail
- PHOBIC
- All basic biological membranes are made of
- phospholipid bilayer
- Function of plasma membrane
- seperate living cells from non-living surroundings. it is SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE
- Amphipathic Molecule
- has both a hydrophobic region and a hydrophilic region ex: phospholipid
- Fluid Mosaic Model
- Membranes are fluid structures with various proteins embedded in or attached to a double layer of phospholipids
- Scientist who proposed that cell membranes were made of phospholipid bilayers
- Gorter & Grendel
- Membrane Fluidity
- Held together by hydrophobic interactions. lipids and proteins can drift laterally because they are not covantely bonded bilaterally
- What allows membranes to remain fluid
- unsaturated hydrocarbons
- Types of membrane proteins
- Integral Peripheral
- Major functions of Membrane Proteins
- Transport (channel or shuttle) Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Cell-cell recognition Intercelluar joining Maintain shape by attaching to cytoskeleton and ECM
- Cell-cell Recognition
- A cell's ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another (crucial to immune system)
- Glycolipids
- Membrane carbohydrates bonded to lipids that function as markers
- Glycoproteins
- Membrane carbohydrates bonded to proteins
- Supramolecular Structure
- Many molecules ordered into a higher level of organizaiton
- Give examples of: steady traffic of small molecules and ions move across plasma membrane
- nutrients enter cell while waste products exit O2 enters CO2 exits
- Permeability
- hydrophobic nonpolar molecules dissolve in the lipid bilayer and cross w/ ease by simple diffusion Polar Molecules pass slowly and rely on transport proteins
- Diffusion
- the tendency of molecules of any substance to move from an area of high concentration to low concentration
- Passive Transport
- Moves down concentration gradient: Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Diffusion
- Aquaporins
- Allow water to rapidly diffuse across the membranes of certain cells
- Tonicity
- The ability of a soln to cause a cell to gain or lose water. depends on concentration of solutes that CANT cross membrane relative to that in the cell
- Isotonic
- zero net movement of water volume. Animal cell = Stable Plant cell = flaccid
- Hypotonic
- Animal Cell = Lysed Plant Cell = Turgid/Stable
- Hypertonic
- Animal cell: Shriveled Plant Cell: Plasmolyzed
- Lyse
- when a cell overflows with water and bursts
- Osmoregulation
- control of water balance
- Turgid
- very firm, healthy state for plant cells
- Flaccid
- Limp, no net tendency for water to enter
- Plasmolysis
- Plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall
- Facilitated Diffusion
- Polar molecules & ions impeded by the LB of membrane, diffuse passively with the help of transport proteins
- Channel Protein Types
- Aquaporins Ion/Gated
- Active Transport
- movement of a substance across a membrane AGAINST its concentration or electrochemical gradient
- What supplies energy is active transport
- ATP
- What does active transport allow
- enables cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules that differ from concentrations in its enviornment
- Electrochemical Gradient
- Chemical & electrical forces act upon ions
- electrogenic pump
- transport protein that generates voltage across membrane examples: Sodium-Potassium Pump Proton Pump
- Cotransport
- indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in a mechanism
- Exocytosis
- cell seperates macromolecules
- Endocytosis
- cell absorbs macromolecules types: phagocytosis pinocytosis receptor mediated
- Phagocytosis
- Cellular Eating
- Pinocytosis
- Cellular Drinking
- Net Flux
- # molecules moving across - # moving back
- concentration
- solute/solvent
- Equilibrium
- when magnitude = 0 and net flux = 0
- Factors that determine permeability
- molecular size ions polarity
- 3 C Rule
- Organic molecule with more than 3 carbons will not pass through a biological membrane
- Primary Energy Source of Passive Transport
- Brownian Motion
- Modifying the membrane to create alternate routes or doors
- Facilitated Diffusion
- ____ & _____ typically occur at the same time
- osmosis & diffusion
- Molecular Doors
- Proteins/Peptides
- Channel Proteins
- participate in facilitated diffusion gated- something must trigger door to open/close ungated- tunnel
- Transport Proteins
- Participate in active transport
- Ways to differentiate life based on structure
- Unicellular vs Multicellular Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic
- What differentiates unicellular organisms and multicelluar organisms?
- Multicelluar organisms have division of labor/ specialization of functions
- Endomembrane System consists of
- plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi appartatus, lysosomes & various vacuoules
- All Cells have:
- plasma membrane filled with cystol & organelles, chromosomes and ribosomes
- Prokaryotic Cells
- Dna is concentrated in nucleoid: no membrane seperates this region from rest of cell
- Eukaryotic Cells
- Nucleus Membrane bound organelles larger than PC
- What imposes limitations of the size of a cell
- metabolic requirements. the smaller the object, the greater its ratio of surface area to volume
- Plant Cells
- cholorplasts central vacuoule tonoplast cell wall plasmodesmata
- Animal Cells
- lysosomes centrioles flagella
- which two organelles are involved in the genetic control of a cell:
- nucles & ribosomes
- Function of Endomembrane System
- synthesis of proteins and their transport into and out of membranes & organelles metabolism movement of lipids detoxificaton of poisons
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- network of cisternae. Smooth & Rough ER
- Smooth ER
- Outer surface lacks ribosomes functions: synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs and detox of poisons
- Rough ER
- ribosomes stud surface Functions: synthesis and packaging of proteins
- Golgi Apparatus
- manufacturing, storage, sorting & shipping
- Lysosomes
- membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animals cell uses to digest all kinds of macromolecules
- Types of vacuoles
- food contractile central
- Brownian Motion
- a phenomena whereby small particles suspended in a liquid tend to move in random or stochastic paths
- Light Microscopes
- first microscopes used: 1590 effectively magnify 1000 times
- Discovery of cells
- Robert Hooke 1665
- Discovery of organelles
- 1950
- Electron Microscope
- focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto ints surface 100 micrometers to 0.1 nanometer
- Useful for detailed study of the surface of a specimen
- Scanning Electron Microscope
- Used to study the internal ultrastructure of cells
- Transmission Electron Microscope
- Human Eye can see (clearly)
- 10m to 1mm
- Cell fractionation
- take cells apart and seperate the major organelles from one another using a centrifuge
- Cytology
- the study of cell structure
- Thermodynamic Laws
- Law of consistancy Law of transformity
- Free Energy
- amount of energy that is available to do work
- Efficiency
- = Free Energy + Wasted/Lost Energy
- We live at the expense of ____ energy
- solar
- Of the total solar energy, living things have an efficiency of ___ to capture that energy
- 1%
- Photosynthetic autotrophs are able to convert ___% of the solar energy they absorb into usable energy
- 100
- this kind of organism captures more than 50% of the energy we use
- cyanobacteria
- Energy Plot Diagrams
- A + B + Energyin --> AB + Energyout
- Enet
- Ein-Eout
- Slope in Eplot tells you
- + endergonic - exergonic
- What can be used to reduce the activation energy required
- catalyst (enzyme)
- Bombcalorimeter
- determines how much energy something has
- Activation energy
- Ein energy required to begin a rxn
- facilitate rxns but are NOT affected by the rxn
- enzymes
- enzymes are
- organic catalysts that are peptides/proteins
- monomers of proteins & peptides
- Amino Acids (covalently bonded together)
- Amino Acid
- Amino- Amine group Acid- Carboxyl Group R group- gives amino acid its identity
- Amino Acid Subcategories
- (determined by R Group) Neutral Polar Charged
- Peptide bonds form through
- dehydration condensation rxn between an amine & a hydroxyl (remove H2O)
- Primary Protein Structure
- list the amino acids from amine group to carboxyl group
- Secondary Protein Structure
- Any bending or folding due to hydrogen bonding
- Tertiary Protein Structure
- Any bending or folding due to something OTHER THEN hydrogen bonding
- Quaternary Protein Structure
- multiple subunits of peptides combined into a larger molecules
- enzymes end in suffix
- -ase
- Ligand
- temporarily bond to substrate so that an enzyme can interact with that molecule
- Epitope
- specific region where enzyme binds to substrate
- Changing the shape of a protein affects
- function
- disrupt hydrogen bonds
- change temp, pH, add ions/salts
- How do substrates and enzymes find each other
- brownian motion
- Left Shift on product formation diagram
- add more enzymes rxn rate increased
- right shift product formation diagram
- less enzymes rxn rate decreased
- Plateau on %binding vs time diagram
- saturation
- an enzyme is said to be denatured when
- the epitope is bent/changed so drastically that it will not fit with anything (irreversible)
- temporarily disable enzymes
- change pH or temp
- saturation
- enzyme molecules will continue to find epitopes until binding has reached 100%
- enzyme affinity
- the ability of the enzyme to grab the substrate and bind to it right shift- lower affinity left shift- higher affinity
- slope
- amt product or absorbance/time
- thermal optimum
- temp at which enzymes work best
- Regulating Enzyme Activity
- enzymatic cascades allosteric regulation
- Enzymatic Cascades
- systems of enzymes that work together: the product of one enzyme is the substrate of another
- Feedback loop
- product regulates enzyme in front of it
- Allosteric Regulation
- protein w/ Fe core carries/transports CO2 & O2 from one place to another. has 2 epitopes for O2 and 1 epitope for CO2
- First O2 Epitope
- Loads in cool basic (lungs) Unloads in warm acidic (metabolizing muscles)
- Second O2 Epitope
- Loads more easily when epitope 1 is loaded
- Allosteric
- the ability of an enzyme to control what happens down the line
- % Binding is ____ when temp is high and pH is low
- high (metabolizing tissue)
- Relationship between O2 epitope and CO2 eptiope
- reciprocal one loads while the other unloads
- Protein Functions
- Enzymatic Structural Storage Transport Hormonal Receptor Defensive Movement
- Polymers of amino acids
- polypeptides
- Organic molecules prossessing carboxyl & amino groups
- Amino Acid
- What do each of the terms symbolize in Fick's Equation?
- dx/dt = overall diffusion rate A = surface area d = diffusion constant m = membrane thickness xi-xo = change in concentration T = temp P = pressure