Glossary of vocabulary for final exam - bio 156
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- genes
- units of information about specific traits passed from parents to offspring
- alleles
- copies of genes dealing with the same trait
- homozygous dominant
- an individual has a pair of identical dominant alleles
- heterozygous
- two allele copies are different
- recessive allele
- trait is masked when paired with a dominant allele
- phenotype
- actual expression of a trait
- monohybrid cross
- tool used to predict probability phenotype for offspring of two parents with different alleles for the gene in question
- probability
- number between 0 and 1 that expresses the likelihood of a particular event
- theory of segregation
- when homologues separate into different gametes after meiosis II, the two genes of each pair separate as well
- locus
- location of a particular gene on a chromosome
- hybrid offspring
- offspring with a pair of nonidentical alleles for a trait
- homozygous recessive
- individual has a pair of identical recessive alleles
- dominant allele
- effect on a trait masks that of any recessive allele paired with it
- genotype
- the alleles an individual inherits
- P
- Parent generation of a cross
- F1
- first filial generation of a cross - offspring of a monohybrid cross
- F2
- second filial generation of a monohybrid cross - offspring of the offspring of monohybrid cross
- homologous chromosomes
- pair of chromosomes that resemble each other in size, shape and the genes they carry
- Punnett-Square
- tool for determining the probable outcome of genetic crosses
- testcross
- tool to determine a genotype of a parent using the observed trait the offspring
- virus
- a piece of genetic material inside a protein coat which is not a cell, but can infect the cells of other organisms
- provirus
- new DNA molecule created from a retrovirus
- bacteria
- prokaryotic cells with no nucleus, no organelles, most have a cell wall outside their plasma membrane
- coccus
- spherical shaped bacteria
- pili
- spiked formations that some bacteria use to stick to surfaces
- antiviral drug
- drug used to interfer with the ability of a virus to enter or replicate inside potential host cell
- epidemic
- disease rate increases to a level that is above what we would predict, based on experience
- HIV
- human immunodeficiency virus that destroys T cells, crippling the immune system
- capsid
- protein coat or shell of a virus particle
- prion
- small infectious protein that causes rare, fatal degenerative diseases of the nervous system
- prokaryote
- a bacterium; single celled organism with no nucleus and no organelles
- bacillus (plural bacilli)
- rod shaped bacteria
- plasmid
- small circles of extra DNA including a few genes inherited by daughter cells when some kinds of bacteria divide
- sporadic disease
- pattern in which a disease breaks out irregularly and affects relatively few people.
- pandemic
- term used to refer to epidemics that break out in several countries around the world in a given time span
- retrovirus
- RNA virus that infects animal cells, uses a reverse mode of pirating the host's genetic material
- reverse transcriptase
- viral enzyme which uses the RNA as a template from which it synthisizes a DNA molecule called a provirus
- eukaryote
- cell with a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
- spirillum
- a bacterial cell with one or more twists to it
- antibiotic
- substance that can dewtroy or inhibit the growth of bacteria and some other organisms
- endemic disease
- disease that occurs more or less continuously
- AIDS
- a group of diseases caused by infection with the HIV
- genetic engineering
- genes are isolated, modified and inserted back into the same organism or into a different one
- restriction enzyme
- enzymes that can recognize and cut apart specific short sequences of bases in DNA
- sticky ends
- a restriction fragment's single-stranded tail can base-pair with a complementary tail of any other DNA fragment or molecule cut by the same restriction enzyme
- vector
- A "vehicle", such as a modified virus or DNA molecule, used to deliver genetic material into the body for gene therapy
- DNA sequencing
- process used to determine the order of nucleotides in a DNA fragment
- DNA fingerprint
- a unique set of certain DNA fragments that we have inherited from our parents in a Mendelian pattern
- transgenic organisms
- gene(s) from one species is injected into a fertilized egg, creating a new species
- recombinant DNA
- DNA created by cutting and splicing DNA from different species then inserting the modified molecules into cells that can replicate
- genome
- all the DNA in a haploid set of a species' chromosomes.
- polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
- fast way using computers to copy DNA
- gene therapy
- aims to replace mutated genes with normal ones
- gel electrophoresis
- a method for separating molecules (ie DNA, RNA or proteins) through a gel by their physical or chemical properties.
- clone
- identical copy made from DNA of parent
- simple epithelium
- single layer of cells lining body cavities, ducts and tubes
- pseudostratified epithelium
- single cell layer that looks like a multiple layer when viewed from the side because the nuclei of neighboring cells are staggered
- superior
- toward the head
- proximal
- closer to the center of the body than another part
- anterior
- referring to the front of the body
- frontal
- plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
- transverse
- across the body from side to side; divides the body into inferior and superior parts
- stratified epithelium
- has more than one cell layer, generally used for protection
- hyaline cartilage
- makes up parts of nose, ribs and wind-pipe; matrix is thickly laced with small collagen fibers
- inferior
- situated below and closer to the feet than another body part
- distal
- farthest from trunk or from point of origin of a body part
- posterior
- at or near back of body
- midsagittal
- plane that divides the body into left and right halves
- appendicular skeleton
- bones of the limbs, hips and shoulders
- bone remodeling
- process of ongoing mineral deposits and withdrawals from bone that adjusts bone strength and maintains levels of calcium and phosphorus in blood
- cartilaginous joint
- type of joint in which cartilage fills the space between adjoining bones
- ligament
- straplike dense connective tissue that connects bones at the joints
- tendonitis
- repetitive motion injury in which tendons and synovial membranes around joints become inflamed
- axial skeleton
- bones of the skull, backbone, ribs and breastbone
- compact bone
- dense bone tissue that looks solid and smooth
- synovial joint
- freely movable joint in which adjoining bones are separated by a fluid-filled cavity and stabilized by straplike ligaments
- tendon
- cord or strap of dense, regular conncective tissue that attaches a muscle to bone or to another muscle.
- carpal tunnel syndrome
- repetitive motion injury in which the tendons become inflamed and press on a nerve in the wrist resulting in numbness, tingling and pain in the fingers
- bone marrow
- connective tissue in the bones where blood cells are formed
- spongy bone
- bone tissue inside a long bone's shaft and at its ends
- fibrous joint
- joints in which fibrous connective tissue unites the bones
- osteoarthritis
- condition in which cartilage covering the bone ends of freely movable joints wears off causing painful inflammation
- actin
- a globular contractile protein nside a sarcomere, looks like a pearl, works with myosin to bring about contraction
- muscle fatigue
- state in which a muscle cannot contract, even if it is being stimulated.
- sliding-filament model
- for contraction; all of the myosin filaments stay in place. they use short, ATP-driven power strokes to slide the sets of actin filaments over them, toward the sarcomere's center
- oxygen debt
- results when muscles use more ATP than aerobic respiration can deliver
- myosin
- thick filament inside a sarcomere; protein molecules with a tail and a double head
- anabolic steroid
- substance that can produce a dramatic increase in muscle mass
- andro
- Short for androstenedione, a normal precursor to testosterone and other androgens. Taking andro can raise testosterone levels
- botox
- A substance derived from botulinum toxin that works by preventing nerve impulses from reaching the muscle, causing the muscle to relax
- creatine
- organic compound that transfers phosphate to ADP in a rapid, short-term, ATP generating pathway
- absorption
- digested nutrients and fluid pass across the tube wall and into blood or lymph
- gallbladder
- stores and concentrates bile that the liver secretes
- peristalsis
- waves of muscle contraction that help push the food bolus onward
- large intestine
- concentrates and stores undigested matter by absorbing mineral ions, water;
- villus
- absorptive fingers on the folds of the intestinal mucosa
- chyme
- mixture of a swallowed bolus and gastric fluid
- liver
- secretes bile for emulifying fat; roles in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism
- stomach
- muscular sac, streetches to store food taken in faster than can be processed, creates gastric fluid to create chyme and kill pathogens
- colon
- also known as large intestine
- esophagus
- muscular, salive-moistened tube that moves food from pharynx to stomach
- pancreas
- secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes buffers aganst HCI from the stomach. Secretes insulin, a hormonal control of glucose metabolism
- small intestine
- abosrbs all major nutrients and delivers unabsorbed material to large intestine
- salivary gland
- 3 main pairs that secrete saliva a fluid with polysaccharide digesting enzymes, buffers and mucus
- ABO blood typing
- process used to determine blood type
- plasma
- makes up 55% of whole blood, mostly water, transports blood cells and platelets and other substances
- Rh blood typing
- used to determine the presence of the Rh factor
- mononucleosis
- from the epstein barr virus, typically known as the kissing disease
- anemia
- sign that red blood cells, with their cargoes of hemoglobin are not delivering enough oxygen to meet the body's needs
- platelet
- membrane bound fragments that release substances to initiate blood clotting
- white blood cell
- AKA leukocytes, fight infection,
- leukemia
- white blood cell cancer
- hemostasis
- process that stops bleeding and prevents excessive blood loss, includes spasms in affected blood vessels, formation of platelet plugs and the coagulation or clotting of blood
- red blood cell
- About 45 % of whole blood, aka erythrocytes, carries hemoglobin to transport oxygen
- hemoglobin
- iron-containing protein in the red blood cells that transports oxygen
- cardiovascular system
- made up of heart and blood vessels
- pulmonary artery
- carries blood from the heart to lungs
- vena cava
- collects blood from the upper and lower parts of the body
- diastole
- relaxation phase of the heart beat
- carotid artery
- artery in the neck that contains baroreceptors, which monitor arterial pressure
- coronary arteries
- two arteries leading to capillaries that service cardiac muscle
- cardiac cycle
- sequence of muscle contraction and relaxation constituting one heart beat
- capillary bed
- dense capillary networks containing true capillaries where exchanges occur between blood and tissues, also thoroughfare channels that link arterioles and venules
- pulmonary vein
- returns oxygenated blood to the heart's left atrium
- aorta
- main artery of systemic circulation; carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to all body regions except the lungs
- systole
- contraction phase of the heart beat
- SA node
- sinoatrial node; generates waves of excitation causing the atria to contract
- AV node
- atriventricular node; located in the septum, slows the stimulator a little
- atherosclerosis
- condition in which cholesterol and other lipids build up in the arterial wall
- pathogen
- general name for viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and parasitic worms that cause disease
- phagocytic white cells
- macrophage or other white blood cell that engulfs and destroys foreign agents.
- immunological memory
- body's capacity to make a secondary immune response to a later encounter with the same type of antigen that provoked the primary response
- active immunization
- a vaccine (prepared substance containing an antigen) is injected into the body or taken orally, sometimes according to a schedule
- autoimmune response
- immune system's powerful weapons are unleashed against normal body cells or proteins
- blood pressure
- fluid pressure, generated by heart contractions, that keeps blood circulating
- HDL
- High density lipoprotein in blood, transports cholesterol to the liver for further processing - good cholesterol
- LDL
- low density lipoprotein, excess amounts contribute to atherosclerosis
- immune response
- third line of defense, occurs when lymphosytes recognize an invading pathogen and mount a specific response against the particular pathogen
- antibody
- Y shaped receptor molecules with binding sites for specific antigens, only produced by B cells
- histamine
- local signaling molecule that fans inflammation; makes arterioles dilate and capillaries more permeable (leaky)
- passive immunization
- temporary immunity conferred by deliberately introducing antibodies into the body
- hypertension
- elevated blood pressure can be associated with atherosclerosis and kidney disease
- T cells
- launch cell mediated attacks on infected cells by releasing chemical weapons
- B cells
- launch atibody-mediated response by mounting a chemical counter-attack in the form of antibodies
- vaccine
- prepared substance that contains an antigen and is usually injected into the body to ward off a particular disease
- allergy
- immune response to substances called allergens
- alveolus (plural alveoli)
- tiny air sacs that bulge out from the walls of the respiratory bronchioles
- expiration
- exhalation; breath moves out
- oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
- hemolobin with oxygen attached to it
- lung cancer
- tumors develop in lung tissue, with resulting loss of respiratory surface for gas exchange
- tuberculosis
- destruction of patches of lung tissue; possible spread of infection to other parts of the body, was rare in US, now noting a comeback with AIDS patients
- bronchus
- airway leading from trachea to the lung, epithelial lining includes mucus-secreting cells and cilia
- inspiration
- inhalation; draws of breaths of air into the airways
- tidal volume
- amount of air that enters or leaves your lungs in a normal breath
- bronchitis
- brought on when air pollution increases mucus secretions and interferes with ciliary action in the lungs, especially sensitive to cigarette smoke
- emphysema
- lungs become so distended and inelastic that gases cannot be exchanged efficiently
- diaphragm
- muscle partition between the thoracic and abdominal cavities, the contraction and relaxation of which contributes to breathing.
- lung
- saclike organ that serves as an internal respiratory surface
- vital capacity
- maximum volume of air that can move out of the lungs after a person inhales as deeply as possible
- pneumonia
- respiratory disease characterized by inflammation of the lung parenchyma (excluding the bronchi) with congestion caused by viruses or bacteria or irritants
- pulmonary embolism
- blood clot in the artery leading to the lungs, blocks blood flow to the lungs, causes heart failure, collapse of the cardiovascular system
- nephron
- functional heart of the kidneys, structures that filter water and solutes from the blood
- glomerulus
- first portion of the nephron where water and solutes are filtered from blood
- loop of Henle
- the hairpin-shaped tubular region of a nephron that functions in reabsorption of water and solutes
- filtration
- process by which blood pressure forces water and solutes out of glomerular capillaries and into the cupped portion of a nephron wall (glomerular capsule)
- urinary bladder
- storage organ for urine
- bowman's capsule
- cup-shaped portion of a nephron that receives water and solutes being filtered from blood
- peritubular capillaries
- set of blood capillaries that threads around the tubular parts of a nephron
- reabsorption
- diffusion or active transport of water and usable solutes out of a nephron and iinto capillaries leading back to the general ciruculation
- urethra
- dual-purpose duct; serves as channel for ejaculation of sperm during sexual arousal; also for urine excretion at other times
- proximal tubule
- tubular region of a nephron that receives water and solutes filtered from the blood
- distal tubule
- tubular section of a nephron most distant from the glomerulus; a major site of water and sodium reabsorption
- secretion
- when a cell releases a substance across a plasma membrane into the surroundings
- action potential
- abrupt brief reversal in the steady voltage difference across the plasma membrane of a neuron
- dendrite
- short slender extension from the cell body of a neuron
- neurotransmitter
- signaling molecule secreted from neurons; act on adjacent cell
- sensory neuron
- any of the nerve cells that act as sensory receptors, detecting specific stimuli and relaying signals to the brain and spinal cord
- sodium-potassium pump
- transport protein spanning the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane; when activated by ATP, its shape changes and it selectively transports sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions in
- caffeine and amphetamines
- stimulant, increases alertness and physical activity at first, then depresses you
- amphetamines
- need
- axon
- long cylindrical extension from the cell body, with finely branched endings. when action potentials arrive at these endings, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters
- interneuron
- neurons in the brain and spinal cord that integrate information arriving from sensory neurons and that influence other neurons in turn
- resting potential
- the steady voltage difference across the plasma membrane of neurons and other excitable cells that are not being stimulated
- autonomic nerve
- nerves leading from CNS to muscle and glands of internal organs
- all-or-nothing event
- principle that states that individual cells in a muscle's motor units always contract fully in response to proper stimulation; if the stimulus is below a certain threshold the cells do not respond at all
- chemical synapse
- a narrow gap between a neuron's output zone and the input zone of a neighboring cell
- motor neuron
- relay signals from interneurons to the body's effectors-muscles and glands-that carry out the specified responses
- epilepsy
- seizure disorder that can be caused by brain injury birth trauma or other assaults
- acetylcholine
- neurotransmitter that can excite or inhibit different target cells in the brain, spinal cord, glands, and muscles
- reflex arc
- neural pathway in which signals from sensory neurons directly stimulate or inhibit motor neurons without inter-vention by interneurons
- mechanoreceptor
- sensory cell or cell part that detects mechanical energy associated with changes in pressure, position, or acceleration
- chemoreceptor
- sensory receptor that detects chemical energy (ions or molecules) dissolved in the surrounding fluid
- referred pain
- when receptors in some internal organs detect painful stimuli, the brain projects the sensation to certain skin areas instead of localizing the pain at the organs
- thermoreceptor
- sensory cell that can detect radiant energy associated with temperature
- photoreceptor
- a light sensitive sensory cell
- olfactory receptor
- receptors in the nasal epithelium that detect water-soluble or volatile substances
- retina
- a thin layer of neural tissue in the eye that contains densely packed photoreceptors
- pain receptor
- nociceptors - detects tissue damage
- pain
- perceived injury to some body region
- pheromone
- signaling molecules with roles in animals' social interactions
- hormones
- any of the signaling molecules secreted from endocrine glands, cells and neurons
- biological clock
- internal time-measuring mechanism that has a role in adjusting an organism's daily activities, seasonal activities, or both in response to environmental cues.
- hypothalamus
- brain center that monitors visceral activities
- pineal gland
- a light-sensitive endocrine gland that secretes melatonin, a hormone that influences reproductive cycles and the development of reproductive organs
- testis
- male gonad; primary reproductive organ in which male gametes and sex hormones are produced.
- seminal vesicle
- part of the male reproductive system; secretes fructose that nourishes sperm
- penis
- male organ that deposits sperm into the female reproductive tract, also houses the urethra
- oocytes
- an immature egg
- uterus
- chamber in which the developing embryo is contained and nurtured during pregnancy
- menstrual cycle
- the cyclic release of oocytes and priming of the endometrium to receive a fertilized egg
- epididymis
- a coiled segment of the spermatic ducts that serves to store, mature and transport spermatozoa between the testis and the vas (the vas deferens).
- prostate gland
- gland in males that wraps around the urethra and ejaculatory ducts, secretions become part of semen
- semen
- sperm-bearing fluid expelled from the penis during male orgasm
- ovary
- primary female reproductive organ, where eggs form
- cervix
- secretes mucus that enhances sperm movement into uterus and reduces embryo's risk of bacterial infection
- follicle
- primary oocyte together with the surrounding layer of cells
- vas deferens
- pair of thick-walled tubes through which sperm is propelled from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts
- testosterone
- governs the growth, form, and function of the male reproductive tract; stimulates sexual behavior and promotes the development of facial hair growth and deepening of the voice at puberty
- oviduct
- one of a pair of ciliated channels through which oocytes are conducted from an ovary to the uterus; usual site of fertilization
- vagina
- organ of sexual intercourse; also serves as birth canal
- estrogen
- sex hormone that helps oocytes mature, induces changes in the uterine lining during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy and influences body growth and development